Superfamily CHALCIDOIDEA 747 



evolution and speciating rapidly. Factors of chalcidoid biology that promote rapid speciation in- 

 clude: (1) short generation time; (2) several generations per season; (3) intensive inbreeding via 

 sib mating; (4) microgeographic isolation; and (5) host preference. 



Chalcidoids are the most important group in applied biological control. Other taxa (Tachinidae, 

 Ichneumonidae, Braconidae, Proctotrupoidea) are used extensively in biological control, but spe- 

 cies-for-species chalcidoids have been used more successfully. DeBach (1964) lists 25 pest species 

 with which complete biological control was achieved. Chalcidoids are responsible for control in 

 13 of these programs, a number far greater than any other taxonomic group. Agricultural pests 

 in these control programs include many Homoptera, but some Coleoptera have also been con- 

 trolled by chalcidoids (Taylor, 1937; Tooke, 1953; Williams et a/., 1951). 



It is a pleasure to acknowledge the comments and suggestions on the preceding account made 

 by the following individuals: Kenneth Cooper, Paul DeBach, Eric Grissell, Peter Price, and 

 David Rosen. 



Taxonomy: Ashmead, 1904. Carnegie Mus., Mem. 1 (4): 225-555. — Brues, 1910. N. Y. Ent. 

 Soc, Jour. 18 (1): 1-22 (Fossils). — Nikol'skaya, 1952. Akad. Nauk SSSR 44, 593 pp. 

 -Boucek and Hoffer, 1957. Klic Zuireny CRS 2: 208-288. —DeBach, 1959. Ent. Soc. Amer., 

 Ann. 52 (4): 354-362. -DeBach, 1960. Ent. Soc. Amer., Ann. 53 (6): 701-705. -Annecke and 

 Doutt, 1961. Rep. So. Africa Dept. Agr. Tech. Serv., Ent. Mem. 5: 1-71. —Boucek, 1963. 

 Mus. Natl. Pragae, Acta Ent. 35: 429-512. —Peck, Boucek, and Hoffer, 1964. Canad. Ent. 

 Soc, Mem. 34: 120 pp. —Doutt and Viggiani, 1968. Calif. Acad. Sci., Proc. (4) 35 (20): 

 477-586. — Townes, 1969. Amer. Ent. Inst., Mem. 11: 1-300. —Graham, 1969. Brit. Mus. 

 (Nat. Hist.) Ent., Bui. Sup. London, 16: 908 pp. —Doutt, 1973. Pan-Pacific Ent. 49 (3): 

 221-228 (fossils). -Yoshimoto, 1975. Canad. Ent. 107 (5): 499-528 (fossils). 



Biology: Silvestri, 1906. Lab. Zool. Gen. e Agr. Portici, Bol. 1: 17-64. -Smith, 1912. U. S. 

 Dept. Agr., Tech. Ser. 19 (4): 33-69. -Leiby, 1922. Jour. Morph. 37: 195-285. —Clausen, 

 1923. Ent. Soc. Amer., Ann. 16 (3): 195-219. -Leiby, 1926. Ent. Soc. Amer., Ann. 19 (3): 

 290-299. —Roberts, 1933. U. S. Dept. Agr., Tech. Bui. 365: 1-21. — Cooley and Kohls, 1934. 

 5th Pacific Sci. Congr., Proc. 5: 3375-3381. —Flanders, 1937. Calif. Univ. Pubs., Ent. 6 (15): 

 401-422. —Taylor, 1937. Biol. Cont. Ins. Fiji 239 pp. —Clausen, 1940 a. Entomoph. Insects, 

 688 pp. -Clausen, 1940 b. Ent. Soc. Wash., Proc. 42 (8): 161-170. -Clausen, 1940 c. Wash. 

 Acad. Sci., Jour. 30: 504-516. -Whiting, 1940. Jour. Morph. 66 (2): 323-355. -Whiting, 1943. 

 Genetics 28: 365-382. —Whiting, 1945. Quart. Rev. Biol. 20: 231-260. -Williams et ai, 

 1951. Bui. Ent. Res. 42 (1): 23-28. -Tooke, 1953. Union So. Africa Dept. Agr., Ent. Mem. 3, 

 282 pp. —Flanders, 1953. Jour. Econ. Ent. 46 (4): 541-544. —Hafez and Doutt, 1954. Canad. 

 Ent. 86 (2): 90-96. —Flanders, 1956. Insectes Sociaux 3 (2): 322-334. — daCunha and Kerr, 

 1957. Forma et Functios 1 (1): 33-36. —Jackson, 1958. Roy. Ent. Soc. Lond., Trans. 110 

 (17): 533-556. -Doutt, 1959. Ann. Rev. Ent. 4: 161-182. -Flanders, 1959. Ent. Expt. et 

 Apl. 2 (2): 125-142. — Claridge and Askew, 1960. Entomophaga 5 (2): 141-153. — Grandi, 

 1961. Univ. Bologna Inst. Ent., Bol. 26: 1-13. -King, 1961. Nature 189 (4761): 330-331. 

 —Salt, 1961. Soc. Expt. Biol., Symp. 15: 96-119. — Zinna, 1961. Lab. Ent. Agr. "Filippo 

 Silvestri", Portici, Bol. 19: 301-358. —DeBach, 1964. in: Biol. Control Ins. Pests Weeds, pp. 

 673-713. —Doutt, 1964. in: Biol. Control Ins. Pests Weeds, pp. 145-167. —Wilkes, 1964. 

 Science 144 (3616): 305-307. —Cole, 1965. WHO-EBL 43: 65. —Flanders, 1965. Amer. Nat. 

 99: 489-494. — Broodryk and Doutt, 1966. Hilgardia 37 (9): 233-254. -Jackson, 1966. Roy. 

 Ent. Soc. Lond., Trans. 118 (2): 23-49. -Flanders, 1967. Entomophaga 12 (5): 415-427. 

 —Hill, 1967 a. Figs (Ficus spp.) of Hong. Kong, 130 pp. —Hill, 1967 b. Jour. Nat. Hist. 1: 

 413-434. — Avidov and Podoler, 1968. Israel Jour. Ent. 3 (1): 1-16. — Mayr, 1969. Principles 

 Syst. Zool., 428 pp. — Moran et al., 1969. Roy. Ent. Soc. Lond., Trans. 121 (2): 41-58. 

 —DeBach, 1969. Israel Jour. Ent. 4: 11-28. —Rao and DeBach, 1969 a. Hilgardia 39 (19): 

 515-553. -Rao and DeBach, 1969 b. Hilgardia 39 (19): 555-567. -Rao and DeBach, 1969 c. 

 Evolution 23: 525-533. —Ramirez, 1970 a. Univ. Kans., Sci. Bui. 49 (1): 1-44. —Ramirez, 

 1970 b. Evolution 24 (4): 680-691. —Askew, 1971. Parasitic Insects, 316 pp. — Slobodchikoff 

 and Daly, 1971. Amer. Zool. 11: 273-282. — Rossler and DeBach, 1972. Entomophaga 17 (4): 

 391-423. —Rossler and DeBach, 1973. Hilgardia 42 (5): 149-176. — Quezada, DeBach and 

 Rosen, 1973. Hilgardia 41 (18): 543-604. — Abdelrahman, 1974 a. Austral. Jour. Zool. 22 (2): 

 213-230. —Abdelrahman, 1974 b. Austral. Jour. Zool. 22 (2): 231-247. —DeBach, 1974. Biol. 

 Control by Nat. Enemies, 323 pp. — Crozier, 1975. Hymen. Anim. Cytogen. 3: Ins. 7, 95 pp. 



