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gerous as was the case in the thirteenth century. The guilds 

 or trades unions of the students and teachers represent a kind 

 of organization that is of pecuHar interest to those of us who are 

 concerned with the conduct of modern scientific societies. The 

 present period is marked by combinations of labor and of capital, 

 such as have not previously existed, but the guilds of the mid- 

 dle ages had a more complete organization, and the universities 

 of scholars have no modern counterpart. It seems to me that 

 we men of science suffer both in position and in character from 

 the dependence to which we submit, and that we could with ad- 

 vantage learn from the stiidium generate of the middle ages. 



The centers at Bologna and Paris developed almost simul- 

 taneously. Bologna was primarily a law school and Paris a 

 theological school. The former was more strictly professional, 

 and its students were mostly men of maturity, already holding 

 positions in the church or state. The universities of students, 

 representing different nationalities, obtained control and imposed 

 their authority on the masters and on the city. The school at 

 Paris was less professional in the sense that theology and phi- 

 losophy were the liberal studies of the age. There was at Paris 

 from the time of Abelard a vast number of teachers gathered 

 together from all quarters ; and the formation of a university ot 

 masters was followed in the thirteenth century by the complex 

 organization of nations and faculties. 



Migrations from Bologna established universities throughout 

 Italy, while the influence of Paris led to the universities of Ox- 

 ford and Cambridge, of Prague and of the various French cities. 

 Science in the modern sense of the word did not play an im- 

 portant part in the medieval university ; but Roger Bacon, 

 born in 12 14, was intimately associated with Oxford and Paris, 

 and doubtless found encouragement as well as persecution 

 at these universities. The promise of Bacon was not ful- 

 filled for more than two centuries ; but there was a slow growth 

 of science at the universities. Copernicus found masters at 

 Cracow, Bologna and Padua and was himself professor at Rome. 

 Kepler and Galileo filled chairs at universities ; they bring us 

 to the period of the organization of academies of sciences. 



