DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL 533 



As in the case of the notochordal sheath of the trunk 

 region, so also here cartilage is formed in the primitive 

 membranous cranium. The first cartilages to appear are 

 the two parachordals, which lie on the lower surface of the 

 head at the sides of the notochord, and the two trabeculae 

 lying in front. The parachordals grow round and above 

 the notochord, producing the basilar plate, while the trabe- 

 culae unite in front to form the ethmoid plate. The 

 continuance of the process of cartilage formation, together 

 with the addition of cartilaginous nasal capsules in front 

 and auditory capsules behind, completes the formation of 

 the primitive cartilaginous brain-box or chondrocranium of 

 the lower Vertebrates. 



Also connected with the head region, and of great import- 

 ance, are the visceral or gill arches which loop around the 

 pharynx on either side, and separate the primitive gill- 

 clefts. At the time when cartilage begins to be formed in 

 the membranous cranium, the arches also become chondri- 

 fied, and at the same time divided into segments. 



Of these arches there are never more than nine. The 

 most anterior is the mandibular arch which bounds the 

 mouth, the second the hyoid ; these two are of great 

 importance in the development of the skull. The others, 

 in Fishes and at least young Amphibians, bound open gill- 

 slits and support the'pharnyx ; above Amphibians, they 

 are less completely developed. 



In the Elasmobranch fishes, the mandibular and hyoid arches do not 

 form any direct part of the cartilaginous brain-case, but in the Tele- 

 osteans and thence onwards, the cartilages or bones arising in connection 

 with the mandibular and upper part of the hyoid arches contribute 

 directly to the formation of the skull. The hyoid proper, or lower 

 part of the hyoid arch, forms the skeleton supporting the tongue. 

 Cartilages arising in the lower part of the third visceral arch assist 

 in the formation of the hyoid bones of the h-igher Vertebrates, and parts 

 of two other arches appear to help in forming the laryngeal skeleton of 



Mammals. 



The mandibular arch in Elasmobranchs and frogs divides into a lower 

 portion — Meckel's cartilage — which forms the lower jaw or its basis, 

 while from the upper portion a bud grows forward, the palato-pterygo- 

 quadrate cartilage, which forms the upper jaw in shark and skate, and 

 has a closer union with the skull in the frog. In higher Vertebrates 

 the lower portion of the mandibular always forms the basis of the lower 

 jaw, a quadrate element is segmented off from the upper part, but the 

 palato-pterygoid part seems to arise more independently. The hyoid 



