The Apple in Oregon. 143 



A thoroughly subdued, deep, fertile, friable soil worked fine is an 

 ideal place in which to transplant a young tree, and under such con- 

 ditions there is little danger of it not enduring the change. 



Tillage, for the purpose of inducing chemical and biological changes 

 in the soil, is all-important to the orchardist, or other soil tiller for 

 that matter. It has been long known to students of soils that there 

 are two classes of changes constantlv going on in ordinary agricultural 

 soils independent of tillage Operations, but both of which may be greatly 

 augmented by judicious tillage. Chemical changes in the soil result 

 more or less directly in the release of mineral substances needed by the 

 plant. These changes are hastened and increased by the presence irt 

 the soil of water, ' heat, and air in sufficient quantities, and by the 

 stirring and consequent changing of position of the soil particles, 

 These requirements, or rather desirable conditions, are fully induced 

 by proper tillage Operations. By pulverizing the soil, air is admitted; 

 this warms the soil; the water of the soil during the dryer part of the 

 season, by this same Operation, is kept from passing off in the form 

 of vapor as readily as it otherwise would, and while the position of 

 the soil particles is greatly changed, their size is also reduced. 



The biological changes taking place in the soil and which are like- 

 wise greatly facilitated by good tillage, are various and quite imperfectly 

 understood. A few of the more important ones like nitrification, have 

 received much attention in recent years and results of much moment 

 to the soil tiller are being reached through the biological investigations 

 of the soil now being carried on in nearly every scientific center. 



CULTIVATION. 



Tillage Operations generally discussed as cultivation are as variable 

 as the individuals that are engaged in orcharding. Some rely chiefly 

 upon the old-time plow, but more count the modern disc-harrow the 

 staple tool. These latter foUowed by clod-crushers, acme harrows, and 

 scarifiers do most effective work under the usual soil conditions to be 

 found in Oregon orchards. 



One plowing in alternate years is held to be sufficient for all the 

 mellow soils, though some find that disking alone is all-sufficient. Upon 

 the clayey soils most cultivators decm one plowing a year desirable 

 and in this practice the two Operations of contiguous years are at right 

 angles, ;'. e., one year plow east and west; next year, north and south. 

 Plowing or disking are usually followed by clod crusher or pulverizing 

 harrow. The first Operation is usually just after the blossom.s fall. 

 Then at intervals of two or three weeks the pulverizing harrow follows 

 until the middle of July or first of August. By this time or even by 

 the middle of June, the surface soil from two to three inches deep is 

 a perfect dust, the so-called "dust mulch" or "earth blanket" — a most 

 important factor in the conservation of soil moisture. Where ferns 

 or some other deep-rooted perennial plants persist in playing the 

 part of weeds it is often necessary to go over the ground at 

 intervals of ten days with a tool known as a scarifier. By removing 

 the tops at frequent intervals the roots finally become exhausted, and 

 as there is left no other means for the plant to propagate itself it 

 disappears. It frequently requires from three to four years to rid a 

 piece of land of a well established crop of ferns. Occasionally one hears 

 that trees should not be planted on a fern ridge because the plant is 

 such a pest in the orchard. In truth fern ridges when once subdued 

 are the very best of sites for orchard purposes. Ferns only grow 

 abundantly on well drained soil. The ramifications of their Underground 

 stems and the ultimate death and decay of these very materially aid 

 in oxidizing and aerating the soil, to the depth of two feet, or even 



