CONTENTS 



Sedimentary Rocks 71 

 Metamorphic Rocks 73 

 Rock Forms and Structures 74 

 Soils 75 



Factors of Soil Formation 75 

 Soil Profile and Horizons 76 

 Soil Erosion 77 

 Classification 77 



6 THE ORGANISM 83 

 Life Processes and Organization 



The Nature of Life 83 



Organization 83 



Irritability and Adaptation 84 



Autonomous Movement 84 



Nutrition 85 



Reproduction 85 



Life Cycles 89 

 Living Structure 91 



Protoplasm 91 



Cells 91 



Tissues 92 



Organs 92 



Organ Systems 93 



Organisms 93 



7 CLASSIFICATION, PHYLOGENY, AND 

 EVOLUTION 95 

 The Groups and Ancestry of Organisms 



Classification and Taxonomy 95 



Taxonomic Categories 95 



Nomenclature 97 



Phylogeny 98 



Monera, Protista, and Plant Complexity 98 



Animal Complexity 101 



Origin of Life 105 



Geological History 106 

 Evolution 108 



Evidence for Evolution 114 



Evolution Mechanisms 116 



Evolution Characteristics 119 



8 KINGDOMS MONERA AND PROTISTA 125 

 Simple Life 



Viruses 125 

 Monera 1 27 



Schizophyta 128 



Cyanophyta 129 

 Protista 131 



Protista as Plants or Animals 131 

 Subkingdom Protozoa 132 

 Flagellata 133 



Sarcodina 134 

 Sporozoa 135 

 Ciliophora 135 

 Subkingdom Fungi 137 

 Myxomycophyta 137 

 Eumycophyta 138 

 Imperfect Fungi 144 

 Lichens 145 



9 SUBKINGDOM ALGAE 

 Lower Plants 



Algal Classification and Phylogeny 148 

 Algal Ecology 149 



Chlorophyta 1 50 



Charophyta 151 



Chrysophyta 152 



Phaeophyta 1 52 



Rhodophyta 154 



10 PHYLUM BRYOPHYTA 

 Lower Land Plants 



Subkingdom Embryophyta 155 

 Bryophyta 157 



77 PHYLUM TRACHEOPHYTA 

 Higher Land Plants 



148 



155 



165 



Tracheophyta 166 

 Ptendophytes 1 72 



Subphylum Psilopsida 172 



Subphylum Lycopsida 174 



Subphylum Sphenopsida 176 



Subphylum Pteropsida 178 

 Spennatophytes (Seed Plants J: (jymnosperms and Angunpemis 

 182 



12 MESOZOA THROUGH ENTOPROCTA 

 Lower Animals 



Cellular Organization 192 



Mesozoa 192 



Porifera 1 94 

 Radiata 196 



Coelenterata 198 



Ctenophora 203 

 Acoelomata 204 



Platyhelminthes 205 



Nemertea 207 

 Pseudocoelomata 208 



Acanthocephala 209 



Aschelminthes 209 



Entoprocta 212 



192 



