426 



INDEX 



Ecological factors (continued) 



gradients in, 353, 354, 356-357, 363 



influenced by stratification, 359 



limiting factors, 298-300 



of oceans, 311-312 



physical, 298, 300, 302-333, 335-337 



primary, secondary, and tertiary, 300- 

 301 



secondary succession and, 360 



synergistic relationships of, 298 



zonationof, 300, 331-332 

 Ecological regulation, see Regulation, of 



communities, ecosystems, succession 

 Ecological success, 336-338 



etTect on: biogeographical succession, 

 364; populations, 339 

 Ecological variations, 335-337 



in communities, 352-357 



effect on: mortality, 341 ; reproductive 

 rate, 340 



in environmental gradients, 356-357 



in populations, 341-349 



through space, 356-357 



through time, 354-356 

 Ecology, 298-400 



effect on evolution, 1 17 



levels of organization, 84 



oceans contrasted with land, 31 1-312 

 Ecosystem {see also Biogeographical dy- 

 namics; Compensation; Limiting fac- 

 tors; Regulation; Steady state), 395- 

 400 



changes and ecological success, 338 



effect on extinction, 371 

 Ecotones, 352, 388 

 Ectoderm, 102, 103 

 Ectoprocta, 87, 194, 198, 208, 212, 213- 



215,220, 316 

 Ectothermism, 284-285 



vs. endothermism, 284 



ocean vs. land, 31 1 

 Ectotherms, 280, 284, 307 

 Eel grasses, 149, 201, 312, 313 

 Eels, see Caudata; Myxinoidea; Teleostei 

 Egg, see Gametes 

 Elasmobranchii, 273 

 Electric fishes, see Batoidea 

 Elements, faunal, 390, 391-392, 394 



floral, 371-373 

 Eleutherozoa, 256-260 

 Embioptera, 246 

 Embryo, of Angiospermae, 190 



of Dicotyledoneae, 189 



of Monocotyledoneae, 189 



of pteridophytes, 172 



of spermatophytes, 183 

 Embryo plants, 155-191 

 Embryo sac, 1 90 

 Embryology, see Development 

 Embryophyta, 148, 155-191 

 Emigrants, 294 

 Emigration, 342-343, 346 



effect on populations, 339 

 Endemism, 123 

 Endoderm, 102, 103 



Endodermis, 168, 169 

 Endopodite, 230 



Endopterygota, 247-248,249-252 

 Endoskeleton, 256, 263, 266 

 Endosperm, 184, 189, 190 

 Endothermism, 291, 294, 305-307 



analogy in alpine plants, 326 



dormancy in, 306-307 



vs. ectothermism, 284 

 Endotherms, 284, 289, 291, 294, 305-306 

 Energy, dormancy conservation, 306 

 Energy cycle, 395-398, 399-400 

 Enterocoel, 254, 260 

 Enterocoela, 254-296 

 Enteropneusta, 261, 262 

 Entoprocta, 87, 194, 198, 208, 212, 213 

 Environmental clock, 322 

 Environmental resistance (see also Ecological 

 factors; Limiting factors; Stress), 94 



as an antagonistic force, 339 



effect on: carrying capacity, 342, 349; 

 reproductive rate, 340 

 Eocene Epoch, 110,377-378 

 Eosercs, 361 



Ephemeroptera, 247, 249 

 Epilimnion, 317 

 Epiphytes, 190, 334, 358,359 

 Epoch, 108 



Equilibrium, ecological, 357, 359-360 

 Era, 108, 340 

 Eriasteroidea, 256 

 Erosion (see also Life cycle), 38-67 



effect on morphogenic regions, 66, 67 



factors of, 38 



by glaciers, 49 



of mountains, 50 



of ocean floor, 29 



of soil, 77 



by streams, 42 



by underground water, 41-42 



by water, 38-39 



by waves, 35, 53-54 



by weathering, 40-41 



by wind, 55-56 

 Eskers, 52 

 Estuaries, see Bays 

 Ethopian Region, 385 

 Eucoelom, see Coelom 

 Eucoelomata, 213-296 

 Eumetazoa, 194, 196-296 

 Eumycophyta, 138-146,281, 316, 322, 327 

 Eurypterida, 231 

 Eutheria, 294-296 

 Evaporation, effect on available water, 328 



seasons and, 336 



in soil, 327 

 Evolution (see also Biogeographical dy- 

 namics; Geological calendar; Paleon- 

 tology; accounts of kingdoms and phyla: 

 introductions to chapters treating groups 

 oj organisms), 108, 113-123 



characteristics of, 119-123 



of continental organisms, 122 



directional, 119-120 



of earliest life, 98-101, 105-106 



ecological success and, 338 



effect on: communities, 355-356; toler- 

 ance, 299 



evidence for (see also Phylogeny), 1 14-1 16 

 148 



of higher categories, 118-119, 370-371 



historical background, 108, 1 13-1 14 



of island organisms, 122-123 



mechanisms of, 116-119 



of most recent phylum, 155 



paths of, 119-121 



rate of, 121-122 



relationships in, 121 



regression in, 119 



of reproductive mechanisms, 98-101 



of species, 1 18 



of symbiosis, 334 



water to land in plants, 100-101 

 Exopodite, 230 

 Exopterygota, 245-247 

 Exoskeleton (see also Shells), 229, 230, 231, 



236, 285 

 Exploitation (see also Biogeographical dy- 

 namics), 333, 334 

 Exposure, topographic, 304, 305, 354, 360 

 Extinction (see also Biogeographical dy- 

 namics), 121-122,370-371 



and ecological success, 336, 338 



effect on: communities, 355; populations, 

 376 



influenced by ecosystems, 370-371, 400 



Mesozoic-Cenozoic, 376 

 Eyes, in cave animals, 322 



compound, 231, 238, 242 



Fall overturn, of lakes, 317 

 Family, 97 



Faulting, geological, 61, 63-64 

 Faunal elements, 390, 391-392, 394 

 Faunal regions, 384-385 

 Faunas, dynamic, 390-394 



North American mammalian, 390-394 



origin of North American, 37 1 -383 

 Feather stars, see Crinoidea 

 Feathers, 290-291 

 Fecundity, 340 

 Feldspars, 69 

 Felsite, 71 



Fern plants, see Pteridophytes 

 Ferns, see Filicales; Filicineae; Marattiales; 

 Marsileales; Ophioglossales; Salvi- 

 niales 

 Fertility, 340 

 Fertilization, 88-89 

 Filicales, 179, 181 

 Filicineae, 163, 165, 166, 172, 179-182, 185, 



334, 369, 374 

 Filter bridge (see also Highways), 122 

 Fiords, 54 

 Fire, controlled burning, 331 



as ecological factor, 330-331 



effect on: climaxes, 360; succession, 360 



influenced by climate, 330 



plants of, 330-331 



types of, 330 



