THE NATURE OF SYMBOLS 67 



but must be essentially pictorial in character. The exten- 

 sional relations, on the other hand, are the foundation for the 

 cognitive aspect of symbols since it is through this type of 

 relation that one may be said to know events in terms of 

 symbols. The character of the referential relation depends 

 on the kind of symbol involved; images and diagrams are 

 in some sense like their referents, hence refer by resemblance; 

 but words do not in general either sound or look like their 

 referents, hence refer by other routes. 



(3) Symbols refer only through the intermediary of a 

 mind. "Words, as every one knows, 'mean' nothing by 

 themselves, although the belief that they did . . . was once 

 equally universal. It is only when a thinker makes use of 

 them that they stand for anything, or, in this sense, have 

 'meaning.' They are instruments." 1 Hence the only way to 

 understand the referential character of words is to ask one- 

 self what he experiences when confronted by them. Con- 

 sider again the word "circle." There is, first, the awareness 

 of the physical event, the word, which is the pattern of ink 

 on paper; this, however, does not usually enter into clear 

 consciousness and may not be distinguishable as an element 

 of the experience. But from this initial experience there 

 arises in a manner which appears to be causal a consciousness 

 of the meaning of the symbol. Yet the causal relation is 

 basically dependent on past experience; the awareness of the 

 physical symbol calls up the awareness of the meaning 

 through associative ties. Something is called to mind when 

 one is presented with a word of which one knows the mean- 

 ing. The fact that it is called to mind immediately, and 

 without conscious effort on the part of the individual, leads 

 him to believe that it is somehow a part of the physical word. 

 However, the attempt to read in a foreign language soon 

 convinces one of the contrary ; here the associations must be 

 made slowly and painfully before they arise with anything 

 like the readiness of meanings in one's own tongue. Just 

 what one is aware of when he is aware of a meaning, is hard 



1 C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, Meaning of Meaning, p. 10. 



