BIOLOGY IN HUMAN AFFAIRS 



of leaders to followers, of authority to obedience, was a 

 part of his original equipment; his courage, aggressiveness, 

 vanity, and thrill in combat were ready to hand for military 

 exploits; and his intelligence enabled him to utilize with 

 unexampled skill those stratagems used by the wolf or 

 dog pack in running their prey to earth, such as attacking 

 en masse, or by surprise and stealth, surrounding, inter- 

 cepting, ambushing, and similar movements. 



With warfare a developed and immemorial habit, social 

 organization and cultural evolution took forms adjusted 

 thereto. Authority or government within the tribe or 

 nation, the gradations of rank and occupation, the status 

 of male and female, standards of honor, honorableness, 

 and truth, and even religious institutions and practices are 

 very largely adjusted to the exigencies of warfare. Tribal 

 loyalty became the basic virtue. The distinction between 

 what the late Professor Sumner aptly called the "in-group," 

 or ourselves, and the "out-group," or others, became sharp 

 and incisive. Internal unity has always been enforced by 

 the most powerful mandates of government, morality, and 

 religion, in order that group strength might not be dissi- 

 pated. The closer and stronger the enemy, the sterner has 

 this internal discipline been. In consequence of this "strug- 

 gle of races," as it was called by the eminent Austrian 

 sociologist, Ludwig Gumplowicz, there arose that ethical 

 dualism which has been the bane of all philosophical and 

 universalized ethical systems. In relation to one's own 

 gang, whether tribe, political party, or business group, 

 one must be loyal, honest, truthful and steadfast, charitable 

 and helpful. In relation to the "out-group" one becomes 

 meritorious in proportion as he is deceitful, treacherous, 

 lying, vacillating, cruel, and destructive. Moreover, 

 whatever in the form of habit, custom, agency, or institu- 

 tion exemplifies one's own group becomes, in one's own 

 esteem, vastly superior to the crude, ludicrous, or debased 



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