THE RENAISSANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY 



the interpretation of an hysterical symptom (such as an 

 inability to move a limb, yet with no true paralysis; eyes 

 that do not see, yet with no real blindness; ears that hear 

 not, yet without impairment), it was extended to a variety 

 of fundamental neuroses. It was then made a clue to the 

 interpretation of dreams, a subject almost outlawed from 

 recognized psychology and relegated to the pseudo-psy- 

 chology that continues the folklore products of cruder 

 ways of thought. Still later it was applied to everyday 

 lapses, mishandlings, forgettings, in all of which the same 

 factor of motive gave a new meaning to incidents and 

 reactions seemingly accidental. And finally it was enlarged 

 to a comprehensive formulation of human motives, fur- 

 nishing an insight into character traits, emotional disturb- 

 ances, social relations generally. It introduced a new 

 determinism. Still more importantly it projected a psy- 

 chology from above, complementing that "primitive" 

 reflex psychology, which is a psychology from below. 

 Both are phases of an inclusive neurological concept of 

 the sources of behavior. The question of its validity in prin- 

 ciple is not the same as that of the correctness of its details. 

 Its contribution is permanent. We shall never return to a 

 pre-Freudian any more than to a pre-Darwinian outlook. 

 The manner in which Freud, and especially his followers, 

 have elaborated the details of the drama of life, has aroused 

 violent protest within and without the medical profession. 

 It is denounced as unscientific and speculative, as basing 

 large conclusions on slender (and subjective) evidence, 

 using such treacherous devices as symbolism, reading 

 remote meaning into the obvious, ignoring well-established 

 diagnoses. Its reception by psychologists is likewise di- 

 vided; many are Freudians, but with large reservations. 

 Freudianism has proceeded far more as a cult than as a 

 science, and if it persists in its present temper, its status 

 will continue to be uncertain. 



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