346 RAYMOND J. NOGAK 



with modification. From cytology and biochemistry, other 

 arguments are advanced. For instance, protoplasm, blood, hor- 

 mones and enzymes show properties which are remarkably 

 similar in large groups of animals. This is best explained by 

 descent with modification.'"' 



These basic observations and generalizations from the several 

 departments of biology could be multiplied and detailed with 

 endless documentation, but this summary must suffice to give 

 the uninitiated reader some sense of the convergence of argu- 

 ment and the buttressing strength of the contribution of neo- 

 biology to the general argument of organic prehistory. Again, 

 close study of any fundamental textbook on evolution will 

 guarantee two important insights: (1) the special kind of 

 answer one must expect from a natural investigation of origins 

 — its limits, if you will; and (2) within this context, the power 

 of the argument, the high probability which the convergence 

 of evidence generates among those who view the question of 

 origins impartially. 



As a member of the animal kingdom, the species homo 

 sapiens is included in the general arguments above. Physical 

 anthropology has used the scientific methods of prehistory with 

 almost uncanny effectiveness to produce a series of hominoid 

 descent with modification comparable to the best phylogenetic 

 series among the other mammals. A classification of skulls 

 (and other fossilized parts) , based upon several fundamental 

 characters, which, taken together, comprise a total morpho- 

 logical pattern distinguishing the anthropoid ape skull from 

 the hominoid type skull, reveals a graduated series rivalling 

 that of Equidae. From Australopithecus (500,000-1,000,000 

 years ago) through Pithecanthropus (200,000-500,000) repre- 

 sented by Java and Pekin man, Pre-Mousterian (100,000- 

 200,000) represented by Steinheim, Fontechevade and Swans- 

 combe, Early Mousterian (50,000-100,000) represented by Mt. 

 Carmel in Palestine and others in Europe, to Late Mousterian 

 and Modern Man (about 50,000) represented by the Neander- 



*" See Dodson, op. cit., for full treatment of these arguments. 



