Biochemical and Biophysical Phenomena 765 



suspension in protoplasm. Many of these substances are easily ionized 

 to initiate the electrical phenomena of living materials. Electrolytic 

 solutions and colloids make up a bulk of protoplasm and are especially 

 adapted to electrochemical processes. Carbohydrates are important 

 sources of hydrogen ions which are released by oxidation. These hy- 

 drogen ions permeate all living matter and are of great significance in 

 the electrical phenomena displayed by living protoplasm. 



Just as the parts of the cell are positive and negative, so there are 

 certain tissues and organs w^hich are positive and negative. The so- 

 called positive tissues are made of cells which possess greater oxidative 

 capacities (hence, higher temperatures) and higher electrical potentials 

 than the so-called negative tissues. The brain is a positive organ and 

 the liver is considered as a negative according to recent experimental 

 evidence. Consequently, the brain and liver may be considered as work- 

 ing together. The electric conductivity of the brain and liver varies in 

 opposite directions. The removal of one quite naturally aflfects the 

 other. The removal of the liver (negative pole) causes the brain (posi- 

 tive pole) to lose its potential and cease to function. When the circuit 

 between the brain and liver is broken, the lipoid membranes, the inter- 

 facial surfaces between colloids, and the interfaces in proteins no longer 

 receive electrical charges upon which their structures and functions 

 depend. Coagulation and death result. Minor electric circuits, similar 

 to that described above, carry on the activities of muscles, nerves, glands, 

 and similar tissues. If a battery works continuously by keeping its cir- 

 cuit closed, its plates are polarized, which means that the difference in 

 potential is diminished or disappears. Hence, the battery is exhausted. 

 In a similar manner, continued use of cells and organs without a period 

 of rest will lead to exhaustion and probable death. If the work period 

 (passage of electric current) is short, as in a single heartbeat, the 

 degree of polarization is quite small. The smaller the degree of polari- 

 zation, the shorter the time required for depolarization through rest. 

 Salivary glands, the stomach, and intestines have alternate periods of 

 work (polarization) and rest (depolarization). The theory regarding 

 the transmission of nerve impulses has been considered earlier in the text. 



In order to operate efficiently a bipolar organism through the main- 

 tenance of an optimum difference of electrical potential, the following 

 are essential: (1) to have an abundant water supply, (2) to have an 

 abundant oxygen supply, (3) to maintain the semipermeability of the 

 lipoid membranes of the cells, (4) to maintain an optimum temperature, 



