ANIMAL BEHAVIOR 847 



end of the pole, other animals are rated very low in intelligence. 

 Simple organisms are usually regarded as mere living machines with- 

 out mental life of any sort. The behavior of even the higher, non- 

 human animals is explained as due, in the main, to the operation of 

 blind instincts, although a certain degree of intelligence may be ad- 

 mitted. Both of these views have been rejected by present-day com- 

 parative psychologists. 



The history of the study of animal behavior may be divided into two 

 periods. The first, known as the anecdotal period, had its origin about 

 the time of Darwin, and the collection of Romanes anecdotes may be 

 taken as a representation of the better classes of anecdotes. Scores of 

 anecdotal collections appeared in which the tendency to humanize the 

 mental powers of the other higher animals was carried to the ridicu- 

 lous. The anecdotes were often taken from unreliable sources and 

 accepted without critical comment. The anecdotal collections were 

 widely read and the popular imagination was deeply stirred. This 

 movement which lasted from about 1859 to 1890 was not altogether 

 without value, in spite of its absurdities and vagaries, since the inter- 

 est aroused was later turned into more scientific channels. 



A reaction against the humanizing tendency began about 1890 and 

 led into the experimental period. This period was characterized by a 

 more critical use of anthropomorphic analogy which led in time to a 

 rejection of it altogether in favor of a strictly objective position, and 

 the use of more precise observation and the gradual development of 

 carefully controlled experimental methods. 



The new movement arose from the work of Lubbock, Loeb, Newman, 

 and Lloyd Morgan. Lubbock, the English naturalist, became inter- 

 ested in the behavior of insects through the personal influence of Dar- 

 win. Loeb and Newman, both physiologists of the German school, 

 sought to analyze the behavior of lower organisms along rigidly scien- 

 tific lines. The work of Morgan, an English biologist and philosopher, 

 was restricted mainly to the higher vertebrates. Lubbock was the 

 first of the group to make use of experimental methods, his studies on 

 insect behavior appearing in collection form in 1882. Each of these 

 men, however, was an original and independent worker : Lubbock and 

 Morgan were most directly influential in the spread of the animal 

 laboratory among psychologists after the turn of the century. 



Morgan was the first to extend experimental methods to the higher 

 vertebrates. As early as 1891, he spoke of the "trial and practice" 



