Actions and How They Are Performed 133 



has in his mind of his surroundings. Similarly, when a cat jumps 

 on a mouse, the action is planned within the model or picture which 

 tlie cat has made of his surroundings. As a result a whole complex 

 matrix of muscular action, which is brought into play, is planned as 

 a coherent whole. 



This idea suggests also how the matrix of nervous signals which 

 will be required to bring about the necessary muscular movements is 

 assembled. 'Trying out' an action involves making all the nervous 

 connections which will be required if the action is effected. Many 

 of the connections will already exist because they belong to the group 

 of connections which bring about a muscular movement which has 

 been learnt. The animal only selects from those it has learnt a group 

 of movements of which it can predict the result. It makes its selec- 

 tion within the model or picture of the circumstances surrounding it. 



According to this, there is a very close relation between the 

 organization of the sense impressions and the organization (or 

 learning) of muscle movements. The two modes of organization have 

 in fact been achieved together. The first task in the development of 

 an infant is to make this link between his organization of sense im- 

 pressions and his learning to perform muscle movements. In his 

 first few months he gazes intently at bright objects and tries to touch 

 them, feel them, suck them and so on. He is also trying to perform 

 satisfying actions — such as reaching an object he sees, or sucking 

 it and he is thus at the same time learning how to perform muscular 

 movements. 



It is probably very important that the construction of the picture 

 of the world shall go on concurrently with the learning of muscular 

 movements. The child in fact is learning to make muscular move- 

 ments within his picture of the surroundings and the movements are 

 helping him to construct his picture. The plan, as it emerges, is in 

 fact a plan of possible actions. Our picture of the world is a strictly 

 utilitarian one. 



This method of dealing with experiences is obviously only possible 

 in a long infancy, when the young animal is sheltered, fed and pro- 

 tected. The young animal is not 'teachable' initially — he learns for 

 himself how to perform action by trial and error. 



The advantages of such a method of organizing actions are very 

 great. It permits of a great number of factors being taken into account 

 in determining one action; it allows of a very close correspondence 

 between the action and the circumstances, i.e. it permits of accurate 

 prediction of the result of the action. It allows the animal to learn 

 from his experiences. All this gives animals a degree of effectiveness 

 which no simple system of conditioned reflexes could have. It also 



