240 Bulletin 254. 



and animal burrows. The better drained the soil the more numerous will 

 be these openings. Consequently it is proper to find a gradual increase in 

 efficiency in such a drainage system for a number of years after its in- 

 stallation. 



In laying drains shallow consideration must be given to the effect of 

 frost. This involves both the preservation of the tile and their alignment 

 and grade. Through co-operation with farmers throughout the State, it is 

 hoped to determine experimentally by means of trial systems the import- 

 ance of these difficulties in practice. The available data is not of a suffi- 

 ciently convincing character. There is considerable reason for believing 

 that if the best quality of hard burned or vitrified tile is- used there will 

 be very little difficulty on either score. This idea is supported by the 

 practical experience of farmers, although it is a common opinion that a 

 tile drain should never be permitted to freeze. 



These suggestions apply to all that great belt of country along lakes 

 Erie, Ontario and Qiamplain and in the Hudson valley. On the large 

 areas of clay soil here found, surface drainage is almost universally 

 practiced. 



All clay formations are likely to be underlain by a more coarse textured 

 stratum consisting of either sand or gravel. In planning a drainage 

 system on clay soil, it is always important to examine the soil to a depth 

 of three or four feet at a number of places to determine whether such a 

 sandy layer is present. If it is found within 3 1-2 feet the tile should be 

 placed as near its surface as possible, since the soil water will reach the 

 tile most rapidly through this porous stratum. Under such conditions it 

 is especially necessary that filter basins connected with the surface in low 

 places should be constructed to hasten the removal of surface water. 



Conversely, on sandy soil observations should be made to determine 

 the presence or absence of a considerable clay stratum beneath the sand. 

 If it is found within from two to four feet of the surface, the tile should 

 be laid on top of the clay. 



Associated with the clay soils are considerable areas of sand and sandy 

 loam soil, some of which have poor drainage. The areas are usually 

 small and are the result of some local peculiarity of structure. On these 

 the generally accepted principles of drainage apply. The tile should be 

 placed at a depth of from three to four feet and at a greater distance 

 apart than on clay soil. 



(3) The third drainage division of the State, includes all of the upland 

 soils of roUiug and hilly topography and is much larger in extent than 

 either of the other divisions. It is also the division on which the least 

 drainage is practiced at present. In many places some stone drains have 

 been constructed with the stone picked from the fields. These systems 

 are usually of small extent and in the main have been in the ground for 



