242 Bulletin 254 



this depth, the subsoil is incHned to be very impervious to water, which 

 condition is aggravated by the presence of many shale chips. This makes 

 a very compact layer, which holds the water and resists the entrance of 

 plant roots. On such land the surface soil readily absorbs the rainfall. 

 But the total amount absorbed is limited by the shallow depth of the 

 porous layer and the removal by percolation of the excess is very greatly 

 hindered. Its removal is effected slowly by evaporation and by percolation 

 through the soil along the surface of the dense subsoil. This condition 

 tends to keep the subsoil wet so much of the time that it does not have 

 an opportunity to become loosened up by drying or the action of plant 

 roots. Further, the saturation of the soil during so much of the crop 

 season, greatly hinders the extension of tlie plant roots. They develop 

 shallow and are quickly afifected by periods of dry weather. Cultural 

 operations are longer delayed by the wetness of the soil and the removal 

 of so large a part of the moisture by evaporation, keeps the soil cold and 

 materially changes its climate. This, in turn, reacts seriously on all of 

 the functions of the crop and consequently upon the profit. 



There are also many swales or shallow depressions, as mentioned 

 above, where the drainage is defective because of both the impervious 

 character of the soil and the accumulation of surface drainage. These 

 areas would be especially productive if drained. Any drainage system 

 that is established should begin with these low places and may be extended 

 to higher land as its benefits are demonstrated. On all this hill land the 

 system of tile drains will be determined by the surface features, but one 

 important principle should be observed. The drains should extend directly 

 down the slope rather than diagonally across the slope. If they are 

 place diagonally, their efficiency will be mucli reduced by their limited 

 drafts on the down hil'l side and by the leakage from the joints where 

 the tile passes through moderately dry soil. 



II. SOME HISTORICAL PHASES OF DRAINAGE IN NEW YORK. 



The early drainage practice in New York and in America in general 

 was very largely modeled after the English practice of the first half of 

 the nineteenth century. The so-called government scheme of drainage was 

 then in vogue and two general schools of practice were recognized. Mr. 

 James Smith of Deanston, advocated shallow drains — not to exceed 30 

 inches — and as fre(|uent as from 10 to 24 feet. Josiah Parks, on the 

 other hand, advocated deep drains — 4 feet a minimum — and a greater 

 interval — from 21 lo 30 feet apart. Both gentlemen advocated the sys- 

 tematic ])lacing of the drains at these respective intervals in naturally dry 

 soil as well as in wet soil. Tliat is to say, very little consideration was 

 given to the variations in the soil and the local conditions. Consequently 

 such promiscuous burying of tile often resulted in large expenditures of 

 money without corresponding returns. The failures of drainage to pro- 



