•242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXT . 



and very occasionally a second, similar to the Steppe, which inalies it 

 rather confusing, bnt these are rare exceptions and as a general rule, 

 identification is a fairly simple matter. 



I will first take the very large birds according to the predominating 

 colours and endeavour to show the difiference between them though the 

 colouring is similar. 



Very large birds in vjJiich hlaclx is the inedmainating colour. 



1. Otogyps calvus, Black Vulture. 



'2. Aquila chrysaetus, Golden Eagle. 



3. Aquila hcliaca, Imperial Eagle. 



4. Aquila maculata, Large Spotted Eagle. 



5. Ictinaetus vialayensis, Black Eagle. 



(j. Haliaetus leucoryphus, Pallas's Fishing Eagle. 

 7. Haliaetus alhicilla, White-tailed Sea Eagle. 



The Black Vulture, like all vultures (except Neophnm) has a very heavy 

 iiight, but unlike the others, he will be found to soar with his wings held 

 well back, more like a hunting Eagle than a Vulture. To explain what 1 

 mean by wings being " held well back." If a straight pole was placed 

 across the back of a bird in flight, from the tip of one wing to the tip of 

 the other, it would be found that the back of the bird would lie some 

 inches below the centre of the stick, and the bird thus appears to show a 

 great expanse of chest. In most big birds the tips of the primaries have 

 an upward tilt, when soaring, particularly in a strong wind, and light can 

 be seen between the first few quills, i.e., they do not touch each other near 

 the tips. The Hunting Eagles and the Black Vulture, however, do not 

 rest content with tilting up their primaries only, but the entire wing, from 

 the body, curves ofi at a distinct angle, upwards. The above will explain 

 what I mean when I again refer to the wings being held well back. 



In the Black Vulture, the tail projects only a very little beyond the 

 line of the wings, the actual extent depending on whether the bird has 

 got it spread out like a fan, or not. 



Colouration. — More or less a deep black, with a line of whitish running 

 down the centre of the whole wing. A white spot on the crop and another 

 on each thigh, make this bird unmistakable. If near enough, red skin will 

 be seen near the white patches above mentioned, and possibly the red 

 wattles on his neck. 



Aquila chrysai'tus. — Wings curve back very considerably. The tail projects 

 a long way beyond the line of the wings. In an old bird, practically 

 no marking will be seen unless very near, when it will be noticed that 

 the head is a light brown, or at least lighter than the rest of the bird 

 and the middle of the tail may show traces of whitish. In a young bird 

 the head and nape are much lighter than the body and a very conspicuous 

 white patch in the centre of each wing, and a white bar on the tail, can be 

 seen a long way ofi". This Eagle (the Golden) will not be found on the 

 plains and except in the winter, seldom descends below 7,000 ft. Not at 

 all likely to be found near any station in the hills, 



Aquila hdiaca. — Flight heavy ; wings held in a line with the body. 

 Tail projects beyond the line of the wings only a little more than in 

 the case of a Vulture. Marking very similar to that of a young Golden 

 Eagle except that the head and nape are much more conspicuous, there 

 being much more white about the head than in the young Golden. 



The plumage of the young Imperial is entirely different, and will be 

 described later, among birds in which brown predominates. 



Aquila maculata. — Smaller than any of the foregoing. Flight very like 

 the preceding species but not so heavy. No distinctive markings of any 



