THE ETHICS OF KANT. 473 



in ancestral types, they are of no use in tlie types possessing 

 them ; and as being rudimentary they are of necessity imperfect. 

 Moreover "besides being injurious as taxing nutrition to no pur- 

 pose, they are almost certainly in some cases injurious by being 

 in the way. Then, beyond the argument from rudimentary 

 organs, there is the argument from make-shift organs, which 

 form a large class. We have a conspicuous case in the swimming 

 organ of the seal, formed by the apposition of the two hind limbs 

 — an organ manifestly inferior to one specially shaped for its 

 function, and one which during early stages of the changes which 

 have produced it must have been inefficient. But the untruth of 

 the assumption is best shown by comparing a given organ in a 

 low type of creature with the same organ in a high type. The 

 alimentary canal, for example, in very inferior creatures is a 

 simple tube, substantially alike from end to end, and having 

 throughout all its parts the same function. But in a superior 

 creature this tube is differentiated into oesophagus, stomach (or 

 stomachs), small and large intestines with their various appended 

 glands pouring in secretions. Now if this last form of alimentary 

 canal is to be regarded as a perfect organ, or something like it, 

 what shall we say of the original form ; and what shall we say 

 of all those forms lying between the two ? The vascular system, 

 again, furnishes a clear instance. The primitive heart is nothing 

 but a dilatation of the great blood-vessel — a pulsatile sac. But 

 a mammal has a four-chambered heart with valves, by the aid of 

 which the blood is propelled through the lungs for aeration, and 

 throughout the system at large for general purposes. If this four- 

 chambered heart is a perfect organ, what is the primitive heart, 

 and what are the hearts possessed by all the multitudinous creat- 

 ures below the higher vertebrata ? Manifestly the process of evo- 

 lution implies a continual replacing of creatures having inferior 

 organs, by creatures having superior organs ; leaving such of the 

 inferior as can survive to occupy inferior spheres of life. This is 

 not only so throughout the whole animal creation up to Man him- 

 self, but it is so within the limits of the human race. Both the 

 brains and the lower limbs of various inferior races are ineffective 

 organs, compared with those of superior races. Nay, even in the 

 highest type of Man we have obvious imperfections. The struct- 

 ure of the groin is imperfect : the frequent ruptures which result 

 from it would have been prevented by closure of the inguinal 

 rings during foetal life after they had performed their office. 

 That all-important organ the vertebral column, too, is as yet but 

 incompletely adapted to the upright posture. Only while the 

 vigor is considerable can there be maintained, without apprecia- 

 ble effort, those muscular contractions which produce the sigmoid 

 flexure, and bring the lumbar portion into such a position that 



