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THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 



cepted as indications of good and evil for- 

 tune. This connection of a red color with 

 the notion of immortality through the me- 

 dium of good and bad luck led to the adop- 

 tion of cinnabar as the philosopher's stone, 

 and thus to the construction of the whole 

 system of alchemy ; but the plant was re- 

 garded first. 



Ovcr-pressnre in English Board-Scliools. 



— A controversy is going on in England 

 over the question whether or not over-press- 

 ure is exerted in the elementary schools. 

 Much depends, in the debate, on the defini- 

 tion to be attached to the term over-press- 

 ure. Edith Lupton would include in it any 

 physical or mental injury done to any child 

 as a consequence of the carrying out of the 

 education acts. The school-ofiiccrs would 

 require that the child should have been pre- 

 viously entirely healthy ; but Dr. B. W. Kich- 

 ardson is quoted as saying that such a child 

 in our present state of civilization does not 

 exist. Dr. Crichton Browne has reported, 

 after examining the London schools, that 

 the evil in them is real, and is working 

 injury upon the children. It is exerted 

 by the " keeping in " after school-hours of 

 children, usually those who are from any 

 cause behind with their work and have to 

 be pushed so as to be ready for the exami- 

 nation, and in the imposition of home-les- 

 sons. The prime motive to both these im- 

 positions is the necessity which exists for 

 forcing backward pupils to the examination 

 level. The very fact that these children are 

 backward is evidence that they arc not as 

 competent to sustain the regular school-work 

 as their brighter fellows ; yet they are the 

 ones upon whom the additional charges are 

 laid. " The influence of that emotional ex- 

 citement caused by the approach of an exam- 

 ination," says Dr. Browne, " is really one of 

 the most dangerous elements in educational 

 over-pressure," and the "examination-fe- 

 ver," as it has been called, " is now endemic 

 in the metropolis." Many of the London 

 children go to the school partially starved, 

 through having to depend upon food which, 

 though it may be abundant, is innutritions. 

 They " want blood, and we offer them a 

 little brain-polish ; they ask for bread, and 

 receive a problem ; milk, and the tonic-sol- 

 fa system is introduced to them." Some come 



breakfastless to school, because they must 

 be in their places punctually, and they have 

 no time to eat breakfast. More than a third 

 of the children in the elementary schools of 

 London are represented to be suffering ha- 

 bitually from headaches, and these come on 

 for the most part in the latter half of the 

 day, when the brain has become exhausted, 

 and the pressure of work tells most seri- 

 ously from it. Many are troubled with 

 sleeplessness, generally caused by their 

 thinking over their lessons, particularly 

 their arithmetic-lessons. Parents frequent- 

 ly complain to teachers that the family are 

 disturbed by the children talking of their 

 lessons in their sleep. Dr. Crichton Browne 

 believes that a considerable part of the in- 

 crease in nervous and brain diseases, and 

 neui'algia and short-sightedness, is attribut- 

 able to this over-pressure. He found noth- 

 ing, however, to complain of in Scotland, 

 where the children are vigorous, well fed 

 and clothed and taken care of. These con- 

 clusions have been scornfully contradicted 

 by the friends of the school-boards, but 

 Edith Lupton gives Dr. Browne a strong 

 support by showing that even the school- 

 inspectors had not means of ascertaining 

 the facts at all comparable with those which 

 he used. Thus, at Bradford, the ofiicial in- 

 spection was done at a rate which gave an 

 average of one minute for the personal ex- 

 amination of each child, " Out of that time 

 had to be taken the time required for in- 

 specting log-book, school premises, sanitary 

 arrangements, teachers, and pupil-teachers. 

 The children had to be examined in read- 

 ing, writing, arithmetic, sewing, English, 

 geography, elementary science, history, 

 drawing, and algebra. The infant depart- 

 ment, in facts about animals, coal, gas, 

 salt, form, color, food, plants, clothing, 

 rain, frost, etc., etc. ; modeling, geometri- 

 cal drawing, weaving, planting, drill. Then 

 there was the merit grant in all the schools, 

 organization and discipline, intelligence and 

 instruction, behavior of children, inspection 

 of the exemption schedule and its authenti- 

 cation ' by attendance officers,' " prelimina- 

 rily to which special inquiries had to be 

 made personally. Furthermore, the inspect- 

 or " had to satisfy himself that in the daily 

 management of the school the children were 

 being brought up in habits of punctuality, 



