1856.] Bread. 307 



its coercion, it forms the most essential parts of the living world. As 

 soon, however, as life leaves it, it hastens to free itself from its chains. 

 In leaving, it necessarily destroys the internal equilibrium of the body, 

 and a revolution ensues ; hence, we may call it a disorginizer, or red- 

 republican element of the organic world. It cannot move actively, how- 

 ever, without water to convey it ; hence, as long as flour or meat is kept 

 perfectly dry, decomposition goes on very slowly. But moi-ten some 

 flour with water, aud set it in a warm place, and after a while bubbles 

 of gas will rise, and the whole will have a sour, putrid smell. A little 

 of this mixed with dough will cause it to ferment i-apidly. This is the 

 old method of raising bread with leaven. But a more expeditious 

 method is, to take some of the ferment of alcohol or beer, or some 

 highly-nitrogenized substance, as hops, mixed with Indian meal, which 

 ferment rapidly on being mixed with warm water. During the ferment- 

 ation, a small portion of the starch (of which wheat contains 70 per 

 cent.,) is converted into gum, sugar, alcohol, and lastly, carbonic acid. 

 The tough gluten, which, by kneading, is thoroughly mixed with the 

 starch, is, during baking, distended by bubbles of carbonic acid, while 

 the alcohol escapes. Should the dough stand too long during this pro- 

 cess, vinegar and lactic acid will be produced, and the bread be sour ; 

 therefore, the " skillful artist " must watch for the instant when the 

 fermentation has continued long enough to make it light without being 

 sour. In warm weather it frequently spoils by too long standing. It is 

 much better to err upon the other side, and not strive to make the bread 

 so exceedingly light as some endeavor to do. This is a fault too common. 

 If the dough is placed in the oven as soon as the fermentation is fairly 

 established, you get bread in which the transformed starch is converted 

 only into gum and sugar, and must, of necessity, be sweeter and more 

 nutritious than the usual frothy products of the bakery. It is only 

 when no yeast is employed, that there is any danger of fermentation 

 being checked too soon. In " salt raising" or " milk emptins " bread, 

 we sometimes notice the dry, starchy taste, which shows that it was not 

 sufEciently transformed into sugar and gum. As yeast is generally 

 used, this defect is not often seen ; but as too much fermentation is the 

 usual trouble, Liebig recommends the use of lime-water as a remedy. 

 This is readily made by putting fresh unslaked lime into water, and stir-^ 

 ring it well ; then let it stand in tight bottles, and use the clear liquid in 

 wetting the flour. The acid formed by over-fermentation, will be neu- 

 tralized by the small quantity of lime dissolved in the water. 



Instead of the fermentive process, bread is sometimes raised quickly 

 by carbonate of soda, or ammonia; but where time will permit, it should 



