reactions of man. But that a creature such as the 

 ray, a close relative of the shark, and therefore 

 more primitive than any bony fish, should be cred- 

 ited with a conscious effort to indulge in the emo- 

 tions of pleasure will probably appear downright 

 preposterous. To some, in short, such lowly ani- 

 mals as these are little more than going mecha- 

 nisms composed of flesh and blood, if not in part 

 of bone. Indeed, I do not deny that this was once 

 my own belief; but increased familiarity with 

 marine animals has obliged me to modify com- 

 pletely certain details of this purely mechanistic 

 view. 



Nor do I think that the course of my own con- 

 victions differs greatly from that of other workers 

 in this field. I believe that the history of many 

 students of practical experience can be divided 

 into three stages : the first, in which ignorance and 

 enthusiasm causes the tyro either to read in the 

 actions of animals evidences of his own familiar 

 psychology; or, in his eagerness to account for a 

 performance he does not understand, to interpret 

 them as arising from traits and an intelligence en- 

 tirely human-like : the second, in which an inevit- 

 able reaction occurs because of his more extensive 



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