ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY 355 



results are overwhelmingly in favor of all cells being negatively 

 charged. 



The fact that the cell is the seat of electric forces has led to 

 speculation on electric interpretations of cellular behavior. 

 The migration of chromosomes — which we have seen was 

 regarded as a possible electromagnetic phenomenon (page 332) — 

 has also been interpreted electrokinetically by Kuwada and 

 Sugimoto. They suggest that the chromatin (chromosome 

 material) of the resting nucleus and the poles (ends of the cell) 

 are electronegative. The chromosomes are, therefore, at first 

 repelled by the poles and gather at the center of the cell on the 

 equatorial plate (Fig. \2d). Then, for some reason, the chromo- 

 somes become electropositive (one might just as well have the 

 poles change their sign) and are now attracted by the poles. 



Spek has obtained some interesting information on the electric 

 forces which are possibly at play in the cell during mitosis. He 

 finds that in the Nereis embryo (of several blastomeres), one end 

 (pole) is alkaline and the other more acid. As each new blasto- 

 mere is formed, it too has an acid and an alkaline end, so oriented 

 that the acid side is toward the acid pole of the embryo as a whole. 

 The egg and embryo thus show a definite acid polarity, which 

 means a difference in potential. 



Gross Manifestations of Potentials in Living Matter. — The 

 severe electric shocks given by marine organisms, of which the 

 ray fish (torpedo) and the electric eel are the best known, are 

 examples of very high potential differences in living matter. The 

 ray carries electrically charged living storage cells in his head 

 which may deliver a potential of 30 volts. The electric eel may 

 give a still higher voltage; that of Gymnotus, the South American 

 eel, is said to reach a maximum of 1,000 volts, sufficiently strong 

 to kill moderately large animals. The presence of a potential 

 in the ray may be demonstrated by allowing the fish to rest upon 

 a metal plate with another plate upon him. If the two plates 

 are connected to a group of students, a bell, or an electric lamp, 

 and the ray angered by twisting its tail, a substantial shock will 

 be felt by the students, the bell will ring, or the light bum. On 

 occasion, a 6-volt electric-hght bulb may be burned out by the 

 excessive voltage of the ray. 



The most extraordinary feature of these high potentials in 

 Uving systems is the fact that nature is here producing voltages 



