COMMON TO BOTH SEXES 257 



pulse. In most cases, however, such specimens have been found in or close to normal grouse 

 coverts rather than being in some definitely "foreign" situation, such as a large city. Usually 

 they have collided with a fence, telephone wires or even a tree trunk. It seems more logical, 

 therefore, to consider them merely as accidents associated with the spring shuffle. 



Territory 



During recent years, students of bird behavior have, to a large degree, restricted the use 

 of the term "territory" to denote that area which the males of certain species establish and 

 defend just before and during the mating period"'' "". This concept is most evident among 

 various migratory species whose breeding range is distinct from their winter range. But it 

 may likewise be noted in non-migratory forms, although here it is often obscured by the fact 

 that the same range is occupied the year around. On the other hand, especially among sed- 

 entary species, the term may also be used to represent the area necessary to satisfy the habitat 

 requirements of individual birds throughout the year and within which is included whatever 

 specialized breeding territory the species may have. The former of these two concepts will 

 be discussed first. 



Breeding Territory 



With respect to territory in this sense, Leopold^ suggests that "the ruffed grouse practices 

 polygamy of Wight's 'crowing ground' type", in which the crowing ground of the cock tends 

 to include the nesting territories of the hens which are more or less defended by him. Obser- 

 vations in the case of the grouse, however, have failed to reveal any definite relationship be- 

 tween the nest and the drumming log or evidence of defense by the male of the area in which 

 the nest is located. This is in keeping with the fact that he has little to do with either the 

 nesting female or the subsequent brood while, with the pheasant, there is considerable asso- 

 ciation of this type. Rather, mating may take place anywhere within the cock's territory and 

 it seems to be the responsibility of the female to seek out the male at such times, which 

 results in such activity being most often associated with the vicinity of a drumming log*. 

 While the latter may be defended, on occasion, against other males, the establishment of 

 distinct breeding territories has been but slightly developed in this species. 



Year Around Territory 



In its broader sense, the territory of an adult grouse is that area within which the bird 

 finds those environmental conditions it requires for a normal existence and within which it 

 tends to remain permanently. As a non-migratory species, it seeks to satisfy those require- 

 ments in a relatively small area. While other features are necessary, in varying degrees, it is 

 obvious that the primary qualities which such an area must supply are adequate shelter and 

 satisfactory food at all seasons and in suitable relation to one another. 



It is normal, then, for each grouse to establish its own territory. The areas occupied by 

 individual birds, however, are extremely difficult to define. In the absence of conspicuously 

 marked birds, the most significant records indicating territorial limits are those of birds 

 which, when flushed, fly back past the observer. Unfortunately, however, instances of this 

 type, in addition to being infrequent, most often occur at the edge of an open field, which 

 is a recognized boundary anyway. For this reason, it has been necessary to rely mainly on 

 successive re-flushes of the same bird and on repeated contacts with what is judged to be the 

 same bird over a period of several weeks'^. Analy-sis of such plotted data demonstrates that, 



* See discussion under Mating Habits, p. 266. 



A See diacuesion of Methods and Techniques, p. 714. 



