THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEUROPHYSIOLOGY 



those of the writers who rushed in so precipitately to 

 take up arms for one or the other protagonist — Pfaff 

 (80), Fowler (81), Valli (82), Schmuck (83), each re- 

 ceived his rebuke. He tells us that he thought some 

 of the problems out while sitting at the foot of Mt. 

 Bernard reading de Saussures' Voyages dans les Alpes 

 (84). Humboldt was a great traveller (especially at a 

 period when he was an inspector of mines) but did 

 not let this interfere with his experiments, for he took 

 his apparatus along with him, even on horseback. 



The pursuit of research in animal electricity was 

 carried on in many countries, the most valuable contri- 

 butions coming first from the Italian .scientists. Their 

 task was made easier for them by Oersted's discovery 

 of electromagnetism and its de\elopment by Nobili 

 into a useful form of galvanometer. Oddly enough 

 Oersted's researches (85, 86) that led to his important 

 experimental demonstration of the relationship be- 

 tween electricity and magnetism were motivated by a 

 metaphy.sical belief in the universality of nature, a 

 faith inspired by his adherence to Natiirphilosophie. 

 This romantic doctrine with its facade of facts was 

 very powerful in Germany from about 1810 to 1840 

 and was derived from Kant's rejection of empiricism 

 and his philosophy of universal laws known a priori 

 by intuition. Oersted's own a priori belief was so 

 strong that he did not hesitate to make his first experi- 

 mental test of it in the classroom during a lecture to 

 advanced students at the University of Copenhagen. 

 The experiment worked; when current flowed in a 

 single loop of bent wire, a magnet below it moved. This 

 great discovery led to the development of instruments 

 with multiple windings and to moving coil galvanom- 

 eters. The contribution of Nobili, Professor of Physics 



80. Pfaff, Chrktophe-Henri (1773-1858). ,\bhandlung 

 liber die sogennante thierische Electrizitat. Gren's J. 

 Physik. 8(2): 196, 1798. 



81. Fowler, Richard. Experiments and observations relative to 

 the influence lately discovered by M. Galvani, and (oninionly 

 called Animal Electricity. Edinburgh: Duncan, 1793. 



82. Valli, Eusebe (1755-1816). Experiments in Animal Elec- 

 tricity. London: Johnson, 1793- 



83. ScHMiJCK, Edmund Joseph. Beitrdge zur neuern Krnntniss 

 der thierische Elektricitdt. Mannheim, 1792. 



84. DE Saussures, H. B. Voyages dans les Alpes. Neuchatel, 1796. 



85. Oersted, Hans Christian Ci777^i850- Experiences sur 

 un effet que le courant de la pile e.xcite dans I'aiguille 

 aimantee. J. Phys. Chim. 91: 72, 1820: English translation 

 in Ann. Phil. 16: 273, 1820. The earliest announcement of 

 Oersted's discovery was in a four-page pamphlet (now 

 rare) entitled Experimenta circa efectum conflictus electrici 

 in acum magneticum. Copenhagen, 1820 (copy in the 

 Wheeler collection, New York). 



86. Oersted, H. C. Galvanic magnetism. Phil. .\iag. 56: 394, 

 1820. 



FIG. 14. Matteucci and two of his experimental procedures. 

 The portrait is reproduced from the old yellowing photograph 

 in the Schola Normale .Superiore in Pisa (by courtesy of Dr. G. 

 Moruzzi). .-Xbove on the right is Malteucci"s illustration of his 

 rheoscopic frog, and below is his experiment demonstrating 

 that the discharge of a marine torpedo can make a spark cross 

 a gap. 



and Natural History at Florence, was the astatic 

 galvanometer (87) in which two coils of wire wound in 

 opposite directions cancelled the effect of the earth's 

 own magnetism. 



It was Matteucci, the Professor of Physics at Pisa, 

 who laid the groundwork of muscle electrophysiology 

 that was to be developed so exhaustively by du Bois- 

 Reymond. Carlo Matteucci (88) was one of the 

 prominent figures in the Risorgimento. A great liberal 

 and a great patriot, he attempted to coordinate the 

 efforts of all European liberals when the 1 848 revolu- 

 tion broke out. When Italy was united in 1859, he 

 was made a Senator. He was one of the early Min- 

 isters for Public Instruction in Italy. His contribu- 

 tions have never received adequate recognition, mainly 

 owing to the acrimonious attacks made on his work 

 by du Bois-Reymond who came near to diminishing 

 his own stature by his sour polemics. Matteucci had 

 rai.sed the question as to where in the nerve-muscle 



87. Nobili, C. Leopold (1784-1835). Uber einen neuen 

 Galvanometer. J. Chem. u. Phys. 45: 249, 1825. 



88. Matteucci, Carlo (1811-1865). Leqons sur les Phe- 

 nomenes Physiques des Corps Vivanls, translated by Clet. 

 Paris: Masson, 1847; English translation by Jonathan 

 Periera. Lectures on the physical phenomena of living beings. 

 Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1848. 



