156 AGGREGATION, COMPETITION AND CYCLES 



adults and larvae. The transfer of a hyphal pellet from the old to a 

 new nest is made by a queen, who also fertilizes the growing mycelium 

 with various materials. The fungous gardens of termites are similar 

 to those of ants, but the sowing of conidia is supposed to be through 

 the feces of workers. However, among the adults neither the workers 

 nor soldiers make use of the fungus. 



Cooperation in Larger Communities. Apart from the families and 

 colonies found within the larger units, cooperation in communities is 

 more or less general or obscure by contrast with the processes discussed 

 in the preceding pages. It is said to occur to some degree in mixed 

 herds of African game (Selous, 1908; Roosevelt, 1910), where several 

 species of ungulates herd together and respond to the signal of any one 

 of them, and to exist between cowbirds and bison (Seton, 1929:3:685). 

 The best-known and most definite type of cooperation in the biome in 

 general is that between plants and anthophilous insects, in which the 

 relation is not only intimate and detailed, but is likewise more or less 

 obligatory for both organisms. In spite of these facts, however, the or- 

 ganization of such cooperative communities is both loose and tem- 

 porary, and follows the kaleidoscopic pattern of most of the smaller 

 biotic units in faciation or association. 



Cooperation and Human Communities. Like all other social or- 

 ganisms, man is subject to the operation of aggregation and exempli- 

 fies its effects, though he has it much more in his power to modify or 

 escape the results if harmful. As with all social groups, cooperation 

 in rudimentary form first developed in connection with mating and 

 then appeared in the family, to be further emphasized in the super- 

 family or tribe. Division of labor with attendant increase of parental 

 care and conservation of energy and materials must have been present 

 almost from the outset, but necessarily became more marked with each 

 successive stage in culture, from hunting to the pastoral to the agri- 

 cultural. This was not merely because of greater differentiation in 

 each new culture, but also for the reason that the preceding stages 

 persisted in some degree beside each later one. Urbanization placed 

 an enormous emphasis upon division of labor and consequent special- 

 ization, and at the same time insured that the ancient vocations of 

 hunting, war, grazing, and farming should feel a similar impetus, but 

 in lesser degree. As a consequence, while the modern urban community 

 seems to be far withdrawn from kinship with the biome, in fact its 

 dependence upon it has never been greater. 



