RANGE IMPROVEMENT. 321 



the grasses, and the latter can be maintained only by some practice which 

 handicaps the brush. Since Artemisia and its associates usually form few 

 root-sprouts, fire furnishes the simplest way of restoring the balance from 

 time to time. Clearing is even more effective, but out of the question because 

 of the expense. Sagebrush may also be driven out by the grasses where 

 irrigation or flooding occurs, but this is rarely feasible in range practice 

 (plate 83). 



Manipulation of the range. — Fire is but one of several processes which may 

 be used to bring about modifications of the forage cover. In addition to the 

 similar process of clearing are (1) cultivating, (2) irrigating, (3) fertilizing, 

 (4) cutting and pruning, and (5) sowing and planting. Besides its use in 

 handicapping scrub in mixed types, fire is of especial value in destroying the 

 old stems of bluestems and bunch-grasses, and making the new growth avail- 

 able for grazing. Throughout the grassland climax from Canada to Mexico 

 occur frequent and extensive areas of Andropogon which are utilized little or 

 not at all, except when hunger drives the cattle to graze them during drought 

 years. However, when the dead stems are burned in the winter or early 

 spring, the new growth is readily eaten, and with proper management the 

 bluestems and similar coarse grasses can be kept in constant commission in 

 the grazing practice. There is still a wide difference of opinion as to the ordi- 

 nary effect of fire upon grassland, and this is one of the many grazing problems 

 which need exact investigation in various types. Theoretically the burning 

 of prairie every few years should constitute a desirable practice, if the year 

 and season are chosen in such a way as to avoid injury to the underground 

 parts. In the short-grass and desert plains, fire would probably always do 

 more harm than good, owing to the dry soil and the certainty of injuring the 

 roots and rootstocks. Annual fires in grassland are probably always harmful, 

 especially in regions where less desirable annual species are present. Fire 

 has undoubtedly played a large part in the spread of Bromus tectorum and re- 

 lated species, as well as of Avena fatua, and it now is largely responsible for 

 maintaining them against the perennials. However, in the regions where 

 Avena is a desirable range or hay grass, fire is of value, since this annual would 

 slowly yield to other dominants if fire and other disturbing agents were re- 

 moved. Apart from farming operations, clearing is practicable only in the 

 case of particular species and over limited areas, as has already been noted 

 for poisonous plants. In such cases, grubbing, cutting, and mowing are all 

 modifications of clearing, which are of restricted application. In the case of 

 browse plants, however, cutting and pruning offer means of increasing the 

 amount of fresh browse, as well as its accessibility. These again are methods 

 for small areas, but they promise to have real value in the case of such shrubs 

 as the salt bushes, oaks, mesquites, catclaws, etc. 



The improvement of the range by the use of some of the methods of culti- 

 vation has been tried from time to time. The first experiments in the appli- 

 cation of surface tillage to the range were those of Smith (1899:20) and 

 Bentley (1901: 18), which led to the conclusion that it would be profitable to 

 cultivate pastures with disk and iron-tooth harrows, especially in the semi- 

 arid regions. While the practice of stirring the surface soil and loosening up 

 the root-bound sod has been frequently recommended (Georgeson, 1895: 43; 

 Williams, 1897; cf. Thornber, 1910: 324), it has never been adopted for many 



