328 GRAZING INDICATORS. 



Thornber (1911) and Griffiths (1905, 1908, 1909) have discussed in detail 

 the utilization of native cacti as emergency forage plants and have shown how 

 they can be cultivated in dry regions. The value of cacti as a supply of re- 

 serve food for drought periods is generally understood, but too little trouble is 

 taken to see that it is available when needed. Other plants that are grazed 

 little during wet periods but are eaten more or less by the cattle directly during 

 drought are bear-grass or sacahuiste (Nolina), sotol (Dasylirium) and soap- 

 weed (Yucca). The first direct utilization of any of these species as emergency 

 forage was made by Mr. C. P. Turney on the Jornada Reserve in 1915 (Jar- 

 dine and Hurtt, 1917 : 26). The critical nature of the drought period of 1916- 

 18 gave an impetus to the development of machinery for chopping the plants 

 into feed and resulted in a great extension of their use (Thornber, 1918; 

 Wooton, 1918; Forsling, 1919). While they should be regarded strictly as 

 emergency forage and not be permitted to take the place of proper forage 

 development, there can be no question of their value as roughage in times of 

 severe drought. If used as such, the supply in many regions of the Southwest 

 is practically inexhaustible, but the tendency will almost certainly be to con- 

 tinue using soapweed in particular until it completely disappears from the 

 accessible areas (plate 85). 



Water development. — The importance of water development for range im- 

 provement has been generally recognized and has been discussed in consider- 

 able detail by Smith (1899), Bentley (1898), Griffiths (1904), and Jardine 

 and Hurtt (1917). These are all in complete agreement, and the conclusions 

 of Smith and of Jardine and Hurtt are quoted in some detail, as representing 

 the earliest and latest experiments in range improvement: 



"Another precaution that must be taken, if the stock ranges are to be re- 

 stored to anything like their former value, is that water must be provided in 

 sufficient amount so that cattle will not have to travel long distances for it in 

 times of severe drought. Nearly the entire western portion of Texas is under- 

 laid by artesian waters ranging from 150 to 1,500 feet below the surface. 

 Wherever the drainage slopes are not too precipitous, artificial tanks may be 

 formed across the draws by building dams, and if the bottom of the tank is 

 carried down to hardpan, or is puddled before being filled, a supply sufficient 

 to last through the dry season may be secured at small expense. Such tanks, 

 or wells, either artesian or where the water is lifted by windmill pumps, 

 should be provided at least every 4 miles over the range, so that cattle will 

 never have to travel more than a couple of miles to water. W'here the wells, 

 water-holes, or tanks are 8, 10, or more miles apart, as they very frequently 

 are on some of the western ranges, cattle greatly overstock the range in the 

 vicinity of the water, especially during midsummer, while the back country is 

 thickly covered with good feed. Thus a portion of the range will be over- 

 stocked while another portion will be undergrazed. In the one case the grasses 

 are eaten down and trampled for a few miles back from the water so that it 

 may require several good seasons to undo the injury done in one bad year. 

 In addition, the forage on the large area back from the water is entirely lost 

 through not being grazed. The cost of constructing dams or providing wind- 

 mills will often be but a small percentage of the loss incurred when no water 

 is provided. It has been often observed that the period of flow of the rivers 

 in countries which have been overgrazed is very much less than it was formerly. 

 This is because the trampling of the herds has compacted the soil, and also 

 because the waters are not retarded from running off the surface as they 



