John B. Calhoun 



VIII. Interpretations of Observed Data Derived from Removal Trapping 



of Small Mammals 52 



A. The Relationship between Two Dominant Species 52 



B. Removal Captures of Socially Dominant Species 55 



C. Constellation Formation — An I ntraspecific Phenomenon 57 



D. Expected Variability in the Number of Individuals Forming 



Constellations 62 



E . Social Rank and Intraspecific Associations 64 



F. The Instability of Social Relations 67 



IX. A Theoretical Conceptualization of the Evolution of a Social 



Hierarchy among Species in the Utilization of Space 70 



X. Psycholo.2;ical Dominance as the Primary Component of the Niche. . 77 



XI. An Induced Invasion 80 



XII. Derivation of Compact Colonies from Constellations 86 



A. Compact Colony Formation in the Norway Rat 87 



B. Howler Monkeys, a Compact Colony Living Species 90 



C. Behavioral Sink D;>velopment by the Norway Rat 92 



D. Yarding by Deer in Northern Wisconsin 95 



E. Concerning Basic Numl;ers, A^d, for Man 97 



XIII. A Formulation of Group Dyi amies 101 



A. The Model of Social Intera.'tion 101 



B. Basic Processes Involved in Social Interaction 116 



XIV. Consequences and Examples of Social Interaction Systems 148 



A. Velocity Reduction in a Hierarchy of Mice 148 



B. The Choosing of a Partner 154 



C. The Response-Evoking Capacity Circumplex 155 



D. Conformity, Withdrawal, and Creativity 162 



E. Velocity and Home Range 164 



F. Velocity in High-Density Rat Societies 168 



G. Exploratory Behavior 175 



XV. Conclusion 184 



References 185 



I. Introduction 



During recent years many investigators have considered the physiological 

 consequences to the individual of altering the size of the group of which it 

 is a member. Inherent in such studies is the assumption that for a particular 

 species there is some optimum group size, above or below which the altered 

 frecjuency or type of interactions are either stressful or fail to elicit optimum 

 physiological states. My purpose wall be to develop formulations con- 

 cerning the social use of space to determine whether there might be certain 

 optimum group sizes. 



I shall consider only indirectly the physiology of individuals. Instead, 

 emphasis will be upon relationships which determine the "physiology" of 

 the community. The basic particle is the individual mammal. In any total 



