EUKAL ECONOMICS. 389 



be maintained giving 17,000 candlepower hours for $1, wtiile in order to give tlie 

 same economy, alcohol would have to sell at from 3 to 5i cts. per gallon, gas at 

 about 50 cts. per 1,000 cu. ft., and electricity at 9 cts. per lillowatt hour. 



The conclusions drawn are that with all lamps tested, the greatest amount of 

 light per unit of fuel is obtained at the maximum candlepower which the light 

 will give; kerosene is uneconomical and inefficient when burned in the old-styK* 

 lamp; mantle lamps for either fuel are efficient but require greater care in 

 manipulation ; with each fuel burned in the lamp best suited to its use, kero- 

 sene has the higher efficiency; the lighting value of alcohol is approximately 

 one-half that of Iterosene when both are burned in the same lamp under the same 

 mantle; and alcohol burned in the special alcohol lamp gives only a slightly 

 lower efficiency than kerosene in mantle lamps. 



As regards the further improvement of lighting apparatus, it is predicted that 

 while the absolute amount of light obtainable with these fuels may be materially 

 increased, it is doubtful if their relative lighting values will be greatly affected. 



Plumbing' for the farm home (Farmer, 31 (1912), No. 19, pp. 6S8, figs. 3).— 

 Systems of plumbing and sewage disposal for the farm home are dealt with, a 

 cheap and simple system of sewage disposal by septic tank and filter beds being 

 described, which, it is stated, would cost about $60. 



RURAL ECONOMICS. 



Cooperation in the South, F. G. Mines (Farmers' Rev., J^Jf (1912), No. 19, 

 p. 1/, figs. 2). — This article illustrates the principles of cooperation among 

 farmers by showing what a cooperative organization of truck growers near 

 Norfolk, Va., has done for its members in a financial way within the last few 

 years. The organization has found it to be more advantageous to have all buyers 

 come to its stations, where the products are sold f. o. b. than to ship direct to 

 commercial firms. They have a shipping inspector and the inspection he gives 

 is accepted as bona fide by the purchasers. 



In addition to buying and selling for its members, the association loans money 

 to them upon certain conditions. 



Grange cooperation at work: How fire insurance companies and national 

 tanks are run by faimers, J. Alvin (Country Gent, 77 (1912), No. 20, pp. 

 4, 5, 29, fig. 1). — This article points out by a number of illustrations how fire 

 insurance and banking both come within the scope of grange cooperation in 

 Pennsylvania. Of the 200 or more mutual insurance companies in the State, 

 18 are carrying risks of over $00,000,000 and are managed entirely by members 

 of the grange. 



Under the plan in operation when a members applies for insurance, an officer 

 of the company examines his property and estimates its value. Should it be 

 worth $1,500, for example, insurance is granted to the amount of $1,000, on 

 giving a note for $50 and paying a 5 per cent assessment thereon, or $2.50. 

 All other assessments are made annually as they may be needed to meet the 

 losses. At the end of 5 years, the note, which is called a premium note and is 

 the basis of the company's resources, is returned. 



The principal advantage of such insurance is in the elimination of the over- 

 head charge which is usually the largest item of insurance cost. For instance, 

 one mutual fire insurance company carried risks in 1911 of over $500,000 and 

 the total expenses amounted to only $51.99. Another company was carrying, 

 on January 1, 1912, insurance to the amount of $11,716,079, and the average 

 expense per year for the last 37 years is shown to have been $1,641.31 and 



