MILLIPEDES 27 



forest leaves to Cylindroiulus londinensis. It was found that the pala- 

 tabiUty of leaves from the same tree and from adjacent trees of the 

 same species showed some variability but not enough to mask the 

 difference in palatability between species. In general, the most 

 palatable leaves had a high calcium content while the unpalatable 

 leaves had not. More recently it has been found that lulus and 

 Cylindroiulus spp. eat quantities of newly fallen leaves from the 

 surface of a mixed beech forest floor, and even more of the leaves 

 that are a year older. lulus spp. eat more oak than of any other 

 type of leaf, Cylindroiulus spp. more pine. It has also been shown 

 that Oxidus gracilis and Blaniulus guttulatus are attracted to glucose 

 and sucrose with a threshold about 0-5gm/litre: but there is no 

 attraction to asparagine or starch. As already mentioned, the an- 

 tennal and gnathochilarial basiconic sensillae are the sensory re- 

 ceptors for taste stimuli: millipedes do not respond to airborne 

 odours (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1951c). 



Enemies 



Millipedes, on occasion, are eaten by a wide range of predatory 

 animals. These include spiders, some species of which will feed 

 reluctantly on the common black Tachypodoiulus niger, Oxidus 

 gracilis and other small forms; ants, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, 

 mammals and birds (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1949). Of these, only 

 toads and birds feed on millipedes to an appreciable degree. Milli- 

 pedes form a constant article of diet of the American toad Bufo 

 lentiginosus, as many as seventy-seven having been found in one 

 stomach, and 10% by bulk of the food of this species is composed 

 of millipedes. The British B. vulgaris, which will eat almost any- 

 thing it can catch, will readily devour millipedes, which are also 

 eaten by frogs and salamanders. Millipedes comprise a proportion 

 of the food of many species of birds, but as far as is known none 

 equals the starling in their destruction. In America millipedes 

 average up to 11-71% of this bird's yearly diet. In April they form 

 54-69%, in May 42-19% and in June 23-66%. After a falling off in 

 the later summer months they again rise to 7-64% in October. The 

 fact that in April 119 of 132 adult birds examined, in May 133 of 

 140 and in June 146 of 215, had eaten millipedes, gives an idea of 

 the persistence with which starlings must search for such food. 



