FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 87 



and moreover the last plowed soil and lost an amount of moisture equal 

 to one-eighth of the rainfall of the growing season. 



Evil effects of puddling. — First of all a puddled soil leads to a waste of 

 moisture, (1) by causing large surface drainage rather than allowing 

 the rains to pass downward into the soil, and (2) by increasing the 

 losses by evaporation into the air. 



The moisture holding capacity of a soil is greatly lessened. The pud- 

 dling of soils interferes both with the germination of seeds and with 

 the development of root systems, both of which militate greatly against 

 crop production. The one affects the number of plants developed and 

 the other the feeding of plants. 



As has been shown already the puddling of soils increases the amount 

 of labor required to produce a given crop — not only is more time of man 

 and beast required to fit the soil, but more energy — more horse flesh 

 must be used per hour. This means more feed and greater wear upon 

 machinery. 



Perhaps more important than any of these is the fact that in such* a 

 soil, ventilation is made exceedingly diificult — and slow. More and 

 more we are coming to realize the importance of the supply of oxygen in 

 our soils, and of the removal of carbon dioxide from the soil. 



Upon these changes depend the normal germination of seed and 

 growth of plants, and those changes that provide plant food and in con- 

 siderable measure affect soil temperature. 



It is hardly necessary to call attention to the fact that even with the 

 work a farmer can give to a puddled soil, it may require years to bring 

 it back to its original form and productivity. 



From some experiments now in operation by students at the college, 

 some interesting results have been obtained. To pass a quantity of air 

 through puddled clay soil required some hundreds of times more time 

 than to pass the same amount of air through an unpuddled soil, and 

 many fold more time to pass the air through puddled loam than through 

 an unpuddled loam. 



To pass a steel point similar in shape and size to a corn plumule or 

 tip, through a brick of clay, puddled by allowing water to stand upon it, 

 required an average push of 18.4 pounds. To pass the point through a 

 similar brick of loam required a push of one pound. 



These bricks were circular in shape, one and one-half inches in diameter 

 and one-half inch thick. To pass the point through the same soils un- 

 puddled would have required almost no effort. 



Precautions. — What shall we do to prevent puddling? 



1st, See to it that your soils are well drained. 



2d, Exercise common sense in tilling your soils — there is a time to 

 plow and a time not to plow. The same may be said of every operation 

 affecting the soil, and applies to the use of the cultivator, the weeder, 

 the harrow, and the roller. 



But someone objects. — It is not possible to do all these things at the 

 right time. Occasionally this may be true — as for example, in such a 

 season as that of a year ago. But generally it is possible; for I know 

 a number of successful farmers in Michigan who are doing it. And 

 if you are not, it means : 



1. Poor management, or 



2. Too much land, or 



