HUMAN IMPLICATIONS 235 



the past to lend biological respectability to the pres- 

 ent system by regarding it as an expression of an 

 inevitable struggle for existence have overlooked not 

 only its defects as a selecting agent but, more serious, 

 have often not even been conscious of the existence 

 of another fundamental biological principle, that of 

 co-operation. Is it possible to envisage a system of 

 international relations which will be fairly based on 

 both these aspects of biology? 



One of the first questions to be examined is that 

 of the size of the co-operating unit practicable in 

 such a system. It is possible to make a case for the 

 present human social divisions, where nations of var- 

 ious size co-operate within their own boundaries 

 though competing with each other for various types 

 of supremacy. Within each of these nations are 

 graded series of groupings in great variety, which 

 also co-operate within and compete across their tan- 

 gible or intangible boundaries. Here immediately 

 we come across an important qualitative difference 

 in the competition. Within each nation this inter- 

 group struggle is normally carried on by approxi- 

 mately peaceful and orderly means. By contrast it 

 is accepted that the competition across national 

 limits, usually peaceful and orderly, may at any time 

 break down into the socially backward phenomenon 

 called war; and even in periods of peace and social 



