igS ALPHABETICAL COMPILATION 



Other Species and Reviews 



Loeb, 1913 a, and many other references. Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. 

 Tang, 1933, 1941- Reviews. 



PARTHENOGENESIS (ARTIFICIAL PARTHENOGENESIS) 



Historical. — A. Natural parthenogenesis of Echinoderms (to gastrula stage) was first 

 described by GreefT in 1876 in Asteracanthium rubens (Asterias glacialis) ; though 

 doubted by some, this was generally conceded correct (O. Hertwig, 1890, p. 304). 

 It was described in several species of sea urchins, including Arbacia lixula by Viguier 

 (1900 a, b), working in Algiers. He claimed that the eggs even developed to plutei 

 in normal sea water. This was questioned by Loeb (1901) and others. Lyon (1903) 

 found that A. lixula had a natural tendency to parthenogenesis, but only after 20 

 to 24 hours in sea water. Loeb (1900 a, p. 469) states that A. punctulata eggs reach a 

 2- or 4-cell stage after standing about 24 hours in sea water. Mathews (1907, p. 107) 

 says that Arbacia has a typical non-parthenogenetic ovum, and Asterias is almost 

 parthenogenetic. 



B. Artificial parthenogenesis in sea urchins was first studied by O. and R. Hertwig 

 in 1887, who found that eggs of P. lividus formed a membrane when shaken with 

 chloroform. R. Hertwig (1895, 1896) obtained 2-cell stages with strychnine. In 

 Arbacia punctulata, cleavages to about 64 cells, were obtained first by Morgan who 

 read a paper before the Morphological Society Dec. 26, 1897, and published his 

 results in Feb. 1898 in a preliminary paper, and in June 1899 in a complete paper; 

 he used NaCl, KCl or MgClj in sea water. Loeb's first paper was published in Oct. 

 1899; he was the first to obtain parthenogenetic plutei (Arbacia punctulata), using 

 MgClj in sea water. He extended the work to other species, especially the Californian 

 Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, and devised many other methods, seeking a physico- 

 chemical explanation of development. He published about 75 papers on this sub- 

 ject, and his book on Artificial Parthenogenesis (1909, translated in 1913) is a classic. 



Experimental. — A. Best method for Arbacia punctulata. This is hypertonic sea water 

 for about 20 minutes. The sea water is made hypertonic either by boiling to half its 

 volume, or by adding 30 gm. NaCl per liter. Different batches respond differently, 

 as also do the different egg fractions. A slight variation in time of exposure may give 

 better results in some batches (E. B. Harvey, 1936, 1940c). Some of the methods 

 listed give only fertilization membranes, others give a few cleavages and others give 

 normal plutei. 



B. Methods which have proved effective for Arbacia punctulata 

 a. Physical. 



1. Mechanical agitation (McClendon, i9ogb, 1910b). Effective for Asterias 

 tut not for Arbacia (Mathews, 1901 b, 1907). 



2. Puncture (Moser, 1939b; Kitching and Moser, 1940). 



-^ 3. Electricity. Induction shocks (McClendon, 1909b, 1910b). Direct 

 current (Moser, 1939b). No effect of electric current (R. S. Lillie and Cattell, 



1925)- 

 .j» 4. Heat, around 32 °C. (Mathews, 1900; McClendon, 1909b, 1910b; Loeb, 



1913a, p. 185; Heilbrunn, 1925a, 1928, p. 262). 

 y? 5. Cold. o°-i o "C. (Morgan, 1900b; Greeley, 1902; McClendon, 1909b, 



1910b; E. RHarvey, 1936, 24 hrs. at 8°). 



6. Photodynamic action "(visible light) (R. S. Lillie and Hinrichs, 1923; 

 Hinrichs, 1926 a; + rose bengal or eosin, Alsup, 1941). 



7. Ultraviolet light (Loeb, 1914a; R. S. Lillie and Baskervill, 1922; Heilbrunn 

 and Young, 1930; E. B. Harvey and Hollaender, 1937, 1938; Nebel, E. B. 



