6 ANIMAL AGGREGATIONS 



1921), "the terms society, community and social group are now used 

 by students with a certain difference of emphasis, but with very 

 Httle difference in meaning. Society is the more abstract and inclu- 

 sive term, and society is made up of social groups, each possessing 

 its own specific type of organization but having at the same time all 

 the general characteristics of society in the abstract. Community is 

 the term applied to societies and the social groups where they are 

 considered from the point of view of the geographical chstribution of 

 the individuals and institutions of which they are composed. It fol- 

 lows that every community is a society, but not every society is a 

 community. An individual may belong to many social groups but 

 he will not ordinarily belong to more than one community, except in 

 so far as a smaller community of which he is a member is included in 

 a larger of which he is also a member. However, an individual is not, 

 at least from a sociological point of view, a member of a community 

 because he lives in it but rather because, and to the extent that, he 

 participates in the common life of the community." 



The same authors evidently do not consider ''association" as be- 

 ing a sufficiently significant term to be given formal definition. In 

 general sociology the contrast between what is ordinarily called an 

 "association" and a "society" is important. Students differ concern- 

 ing the proper criteria to use in making this distinction. Espinas 

 (1878) recognized that there was a difference, and called "associa- 

 tions" accidental societies between animals of different species. Ac- 

 cording to this pioneer in the field of general sociology, the charac- 

 teristic trait of social fife is to be found in habitual reciprocity be- 

 tween activities which are more or less independent. He recognized 

 certain similarities between associations and societies but regarded 

 the former as less necessary for their constituent elements. Associa- 

 tions, according to Espinas, are groups of convenience, not of neces- 

 sity. Deegener sharpened this distinction (1918) on the basis of use- 

 fulness of the animal group to the individual members. He designat- 

 ed an "association" as a collection of similar or dissimilar animals, 

 which does not have value for the individuals composing the group ; 

 and a "society" as one in which the collection does have distinct 

 value for the individuals of which it is composed. 



