416 



POPULATIONS 



other species of baboon behaving in the same 

 manner. The sentinels are often the largest, 

 strongest males, that is with the exception of 

 the real leader of the group; they will remain 

 faithfully at their post 'waughing' (the typical 

 note of danger is 'waugh,' 'waugh,' very gut- 

 tural and somewhat alarming) despite the 

 proximity of danger. Upon these notes of warn- 

 ing reaching the ear of the leader, he will im- 

 mediately assemble the leaders of the group, 

 marshaling the males at the rear and along the 

 sides, the females and the young at the fore- 

 front, or within the cordon of the males; he 

 himself will alternately lead or bring up the 

 rear, according to the plan of flight or the 

 degree of danger. When things get too hot for 

 the sentinels, they scamper off a short distance, 

 mount some high position, and give a further 

 warning to the leader. In times of slaughter, 

 the young are protected by the parents, often 

 with great danger to the latter." 



If one mav extrapolate from observa- 

 tions of captive baboons (Zuckerman, 

 1932) to those in the field— and biological 

 extrapolation always involves some uncer- 

 tainty—the leader among the baboons is 

 also the socially dominant individual. Cer- 

 tainly dominance and leadership go to- 

 gether in the hordes of introduced rhesus 

 monkeys that Carpenter (1942) has ob- 

 served on Santiao;o Island off the coast of 

 Puerto Rico. If the leader is strongly dom- 

 inant and aggressive, his group ranges un- 

 molested over a wider territory than do 

 those led by less able individuals. Here we 

 have a clear interplay of the three types of 

 social systems based, respectively, on ter- 

 ritory, hierarchv, and leadership. 



The observations on the size and success 

 of male-led baboon groups and rhesus 

 monkey hordes warn against too complete 

 acceptance of the suggestion of Darling 

 (1937, p. 93) that among mammals "ma- 

 triarchy makes for gregariousness and fam- 

 ily cohesion. The natriarchal group can 

 never be large, for however attentively the 

 male mav care for his group he is never 

 selfless. Sexual fealousv is alwavs ready to 

 impinge on social relations leading to gre- 

 gariousness." 



Although there is much support for Dar- 

 lins;'s sugsiestion, especially in the con- 

 trast he pives between the size of the fe- 

 male-led herds of red deer and the small 

 families of male-dominated roe deer, such 

 {generalizations cannot be applied too 

 strictlv. In addition to the success of 

 hordes of rhesus monkeys led by aggressive 



males, another reason for caution is sup- 

 plied by the situation existing within the 

 companies of howling monkeys on Barro 

 Colorado Island in the Canal Zone. Car- 

 penter (1934) found that leadership in 

 these territorial hordes resided in a group 

 of males, and a sexually receptive female 

 member of the local horde is possessed first 

 by one male and then by another with no 

 sign of social tension. 



Another type of group organization, 

 leadership, and territoriality of a kind, has 

 been described by Sdobnikov (1935) for 

 the reindeer herds of northern Eurasia. 

 These herds are not simple mechanical as- 

 sociations of a number of animals. Rather, 

 each herd is divided into two main groups 

 that may be 'roughly recognized as "fringe" 

 and "middle" reindeer. These groups are 

 not accidental and variable, except as 

 disease or some other debilitating factor 

 may cause an animal to shift from the mid- 

 dle to the fringe. The young often remain 

 with the group to which the mother be- 

 longs. Age and sex make no diflFerence. 

 The fringe reindeer are also divided simi- 

 larly into subgroups: (a) "vanguard," (b) 

 "side," and (c) "rear" or "tail" groups. 

 The side reindeer belong either on the 

 right or left side, but apparently not now 

 to one side and later to the other. 



The animals from the different sections 

 of the herd show behavior differences. 

 Vanguard reindeer are generally the most 

 restless and nervous. They are timid and 

 relativelv wild. They are the first to finish 

 eating;, first to lie down and chew the cud. 

 and first to get up again. They include the 

 individual leaders of the herd if such are 

 to be found. These leaders are not alwavs 

 present; they occur more frequently in 

 older herds that have been formed for a 

 long time. In the spring season, leadership 

 is apparently more often assumed by fe- 

 males. 



Side reindeer do not differ much in be- 

 havior from those of the vanguard. Thev 

 are also timid and restless, and they fre- 

 Quently leave the herd and thus become 

 chiefly responsible for fragmentation. 



Rear or tail reindeer tend to be auiet 

 and submissive; the latter do not run fast; 

 they stay near the herd and spend most 

 of their time feeding. They are frequentlv 

 the best fed of all the animals, despite their 

 eating what others have trampled and left 



