THE LATEST REFORM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS. 379 



realism in methods that science involves, should be henceforth essen- 

 tial to these institutions. For two important reasons, this was im- 

 perative; namely: to successfully lead professional education, which 

 these schools were to continue, back to its living source, and to 

 enable these schools, in their turn, to take scientific progress firmly 

 in hand." 



The main object aimed at was to replace and supersede the 

 demoralizing-, low-level routine of cramming for examinations, 

 which obviously leaves the student practically indifferent, passive, 

 unexerted and unenlightened, by a free and intelligent initiation, 

 on the broadest possible lines, to the methods as well as to the 

 achievements and results of science. In order to accomplish 

 this, there was only one way : modifying the syllabuses and pro- 

 grammes in such a manner and to such an extent, that in order 

 to successfully pass the examinations prescribed for the divers 

 degrees, it should henceforth be required of the candidate, not 

 only to have stored a certain amount of notions and of positive 

 knowledge, but also to have properly tested his intellect and his 

 natural capacities. We can now see the reason why, from the 

 beginning, the first step towards the reform of the facultds had 

 to be a reform of the exam'nations. By introducing into the 

 examinations and into the teaching leading up to them, an element 

 of higher scientific order than hitherto ; by raisinp- the professional 

 function of the facultes to the level of their scientific work, pro- 

 fessional training was to become more scientific. In this wa)' 

 science would no longer be hampered by professional training, 

 which had been hitherto a stumbling-block in its way. 



On the strength of ideas like these, the rules and regulations 

 for admission to the different degrees were gradually and pro- 

 gressively altered and modified in all the facidtds. Almost every- 

 where, thorough and original work is strongly encouraged nowa- 

 days in the programmes of study, whereas formerly, the obliga- 

 tory academic themata, which, by min'sterial decision, had to be 

 uniform for all the candidates and consequently for the masters 

 as well, had severely handicapped such work and made it all but 

 impracticable. It stands to reason, that this radical reform of the 

 examinations, which was intended to bring about efficientlv the 

 metamorphosis of the ecoles professionnelles and athenaea into 

 truly scientific establishments, was not d'Ctated by the central 

 government. Enough for the government had been all the legis- 

 lation in syllabuses and programmes that it had been compelled 

 to go through during the past three-quarters of the century. 

 Government confined itself to manifesting its desire, that the 

 traditional drags and obstacles, which hampered the soar of the 

 scientific spirit, should be removed. As for the practical steps 

 and the details, competent corporate bodies were invited to con- 

 sider them ; and \n certain cases, they were requested to take 

 steps themselves, at their own responsibility and after approval 

 from the central authorities. Decisions and decrees, says Albert 

 Dumont, Director of Higher Education from 1879-1884, will not 

 cause higher education to make any real and thorouP'h progress. 

 Progress is to be reached and achieved by changes, effected in 

 the ideas. The teaching bodies must feel their high responsi- 



