Iu)im- ranges, if not territorifs, at least during tiu- 

 breeding season (snails, Kdelstani and I'alnier 1'I50: 

 toads. Hogert 1947: lish, Hasler and Wishy 195S: 

 turtles, Cagle 1<144 : mammals, Seton !*)()'>, U>25-28). 

 Immature animals, species in migration, or shifting 

 populations during non-breeding seasons commonly 

 do not have definite areas to which they confine their 

 activities. An area should not be called a territory 

 unless one can ascertain that it is defended against 

 intruders of the same species. 



In order to determine that a home range exists, 

 and to measure the size of it if it does, it is necessary 

 to verify continuous occupancy of the suspected area 

 hv tiie same individual animal. .Animals are trapped, 

 marked and released as many times as are necessary 

 clearly to establish the shape and e.xtent of the area 

 over which they wander in carrying out their normal 

 activities. Best procedures for arranging the location 

 of traps so as to reveal true home range and for sta- 

 tistical analysis of the records of recapture are re- 

 viewed by Dice and Clark (1953) and Stickel 

 (1954). This can only be done if the individual can 

 he identified by some peculiarity in its coloration or 

 body characteristics, or by some system of applied 

 marking (Taber and Cowan in Mosby 1960). Birds 

 are commonly live-trapped and handed with num- 

 bered aluminum bands placed around the legs. Mam- 

 mals may be live-trapped and marked by distinctive 

 toe clipping, ear notching, or tattooing. Snakes may 

 be marked by removing scales from conspicuous loca- 

 tions on the body ; frogs and toads may be identified 

 by punctures in the web between the toes, toe clip- 

 ping, or by tags ; turtles can be made to unwind a 

 spool of string by which their trail is marked ; fish 

 fins can be clipped, or numbered tags attached to the 

 jaw or gill covert or fin ; and so on. The trouble with 

 these techniques is that the animal must be trapped 

 and handled to be identified. The ideal marking 

 would be one obviating all this disturbing clumsiness 

 while permitting easy and positive identification. 



\'arious methods of marking animals have been 

 developed so that they may be individually recognized 

 without recapture : colored bands ; dyeing parts of the 

 body ; attaching colored feathers to the tails of birds. 

 Luminous paint applied to small aquatic animals al- 

 lows their movements to be traced in the dark (Lock- 

 head 1939). Attempts have been made recently to 

 dose animals with radioactive cobalt or phosphorous 

 and trace their movements with a Geiger counter 

 (Miller 1957). 



Territoriality has become so ingrained in the be- 

 havior of some types of animal that simple advertise- 

 ment of possession often constitu.es adequate de- 

 fense. Such advertisement takes the form of song or 

 other vocal expression in birds, some mammals, and 

 some frogs, or the deposition of scent, a characteristic 

 of many mammals (Holzapfel 1939, Graf 1956). If 



FIG. 12-6 Theoretic 

 closed within solid 

 broken lines). The 

 1943). 



il relation between home ranges (area en- 

 lines) and territories (area enclosed within 

 black dots represent nesting sites (Burt 



an intruder persists in invading a territory, however, 

 the owner will variously display bright threatening 

 coloration, scold or growl, give chase, or actually en- 

 gage in physical combat. 



12-7 Tr< 

 July 7- 



its home range during o 



Cooperation and disoperation 185 



