Trophic Levels (Continued) 

 consumed and wasted energy in, 



202 

 diversity of species and closeness 



of to source of energy, 196 

 energy lost from as used by 



saprovores, 202 

 fish of coral reef as represented 



in, 367 

 herbivores or primary consumers 



as second of, 196 

 higher, transfer of energy to 



through predation, 201 

 larger carnivores or Tertiary 



consumers as fourth of, 196 

 of consumers not shaply defined, 



196 

 plants distinguished as autotro- 

 phic in, 196 

 position of omnivores in, 196 

 position of saprovores in, 196 

 position of species in and reduc- 

 tion of productivity yield, 207 

 producers as lowest of, 196 

 pyramids of numbers arranged by 



and food co- actions, 198 

 rates of production and growth at, 



199 

 rates of reproduction of organisms 



in and protective devices, 196- 



198 

 replacement of individuals that 



meet non- predatory deaths in, 



202 

 simplification of food web into, 196 

 smaller carnivores or secondary 



consumers as third of, 196 

 solar radiation as basic source of 



energy for, 200-201 

 with balanced populations, total 



net production of energy of 



consumed by predators of 



higher, 202 

 with unbalanced populations and 



predatory consumption of 



energy, 202 

 Tropical Biomes (see also Forests; 



Tropical Vegetation): 

 agriculture in, 349-350, 350 

 as harsh and exacting to man 



biologically, 349 

 biociations of: 

 African savanna, 344 

 African tropical forest, 344 

 American tropical forest, 344 

 Australian savanna, 344 

 Indo- Malayan tropical forest, 



344 

 South American savanna, 344 

 cattle- raising in, 349-350 

 distribution of, 340 

 diversity of rainfall in, 340-341 

 dry season in, 340-341 



Tropical Biomes (Coiifniucd) 

 even temperatures of, 340 

 humidity in, 341 

 hunting and fishing in, 350 

 length of day and night in, 340 

 occurrence of climax savanna in, 



341 

 occurrence of deciduous forest in, 



341 

 tropical forests: 

 ability of animals of to hang from 



trees, 346 

 Andes, derivation of fauna of, 



344-345 

 arboreal living habits in of 



animals normally ground- 

 dwellers, 349 

 as possible origin for most 



modern groups of plants and 



animals, 344 

 birds of, nesting in holes in trees 



by, 346-347 

 daily rhythms in animal activities 



in, 348 

 developmental period of cold- 

 blooded animals in, 347 

 epiphytes in as habitats for small 



water organisms, 349 

 fauna of rich in species, 345-346 

 feeding of sloths and ant-eaters 



in, 348 

 greatest variety of animals as 



occurring in floor of, 348-349 

 harsh and exacting nature of 



competition in, 346 

 nectar and pollen feeding in, 348 

 no definite period of dormancy 



or migration in, 348 

 reproduction of birds in, 347-348 

 sensitivity of animals of to sun, 



349 

 size of cold-blooded animals in, 



347-348 

 trail-breaking by animals in, 347 

 wet season in, 340-341 

 wood- eating insects in, 347 

 Tropical Vegetation (see also 



Tropical Biomes): 

 as essentially a continuum, 341 

 broad- leaved evergreen forest: 

 aspection in, 342 

 comparisons of, 342 

 described. 342 

 dominants of, 342 

 high humidity of, 342 

 light intensities in, 342, 342-343 

 strata of, 342 

 undergrowth of not thick jungle, 



342 

 variety of species of, 342 

 classified according to aspects of 



physiognomy important to 



animals, 343 



Tropical Vegetation (Continued) 

 deciduous forest, 342 

 epiphytes: 

 described, 343 

 importance of in community 



dynamics, 373 

 in tropical America and Africa 



compared, 373 

 water in clumps of leaves of as 



containing insects, 349 

 montane rain forests, 343 

 no lowland climatic grassland in, 



371 

 savanna: 

 as forest-edge community, 343 

 defined. 341-342 

 extensiveness of, 341-342 

 factors in increase of, 341- 



342 

 gallery forest of, 341-342 

 grasses of, 341-342 

 sedges of, 341-342 

 Tropism, defined. 12 

 Tundra: 

 alpine: 

 acclimation of animals to low 



temperature of, 322 

 acclimation of animals to strong 



winds of, 322 

 as lacking permafrost in subsoil, 



316 

 atmosphere of, 316 

 birds of in North America, 321- 



322 

 dispersal of North American 



species of, 322 

 earlier activity of animals in 



spring on southern slopes of 



than on northern slopes, 323 

 endemic species in, 317 

 extension of, 317 

 factors in small number of 



characteristic species of in 



North America, 321 

 habits of pikas in, 322 

 high incidence of grasshoppers 



in, 322-323 

 impoverished fauna of ponds of, 



322 

 limitations in size of, 316 

 location of Tibetan faciation of, 



321 

 low oxygen pressure at high 



altitudes of and mammal 



adjustments, 323 

 mammals of in North America, 



321 

 nature of soil of, 316 

 occurrence of krumholz in, 317 

 overlap of animal species of 



with arctic species, 317 

 overlap of Tibetan fauna of with 



that of other biociations, 321 



446 Index 



