354 



THE INDIA RUBBER WORLD 



[April 1, 1913. 



will crack up this slab, and enable the roots to find their way 

 to the water, which is just underneath it. 



"Again one finds that, after rain, the water remains in some 

 places for weeks on the surface, affecting all the trees or plants 

 in that area. This, too, would not occur if the slab were broken 

 up, as the water would find its way through the cracks. In 

 some places here, where this slab was broken through before 

 planting out, the plants require very little watering, and the 

 bearing trees are healthy and full of crop even during the 

 severest drought. The method used in these places is to cut 

 down to the slab and break it with pick-axes at a prohibitive cost. 

 If holes could be drilled and dynamite used, the breaking up of 

 the slab will be much greater and the cost less than half. 

 Perhaps the cost of holing with dynamite and planting will be 



slightly higher, but there will be a great saving in watering, 

 and the oJiances given to plants to strike root and bring them 

 earlier into bearing will amply repay this. Eyen in bearing 

 fields where this slab occurs it would be well to have it broken 

 up a little and allow the roots to find their own water. 



"It would be interesting to hear of results of a few experiments 

 and also have the views of some of the veteran planters of the 

 Eastern Province on the subject." 



In conclusion, I hope to see further reports on the matter, 

 not only over coco-nuts, but in connection with rubber-planting 

 and tropical agriculture generally. Meanwhile there is no .doubt 

 that explosives have not only come to stay as a necessary auxiliary 

 to modern agricultural science, but their use will extend on all 

 sides until they occupy a prominent position therein. 



A Brief History of Fire Hose Specifications in the United States. 



By E. A. Barrier, Factory Mutuals Laboratory. 

 A PAPER READ AT THE THIRD INTERNATIONAL RUP>BER CONFERENCE, HELD IN NEW YORK, 1912. 



It should be mentioned that in these first specifications, it was 

 originally suggested that all reference to the kind of rubber 

 in the lining be omitted, but many of the manufacturers ob- 

 jected, stating that if the kind of rubber was not specified, some 

 unscrupulous manufacturers would take advantage of those who 

 were honest by using an inferior rubber. Accordingly a clause 

 specifying the kind of rubber was inserted, and it was the con- 

 census of opinion that 40 per cent, of pure Para should be 

 required. This unfortunate wording, which later gave rise to 

 the question as to what was meant by pure Para, has been the 

 cause of inore discussion than any other clause in these specifi- 

 cations. There is ample written evidence, however, to show that 

 at the time the original specifications were written, and for 

 several years after, everyone interested in hose specifications 

 understood that pure Para meant fine Para. 



The whole idea in this matter of specifications was to obtain 

 a list of manufacturers whose product could be depended upon, 

 and which could be recommended to mills insured in the Factory 

 Mutual Companies. This idea had been and was being developed 

 in many other lines of fire protection appliances at the same 

 time. The plan of procedure used then, and which has not 

 been changed in any important particular, was as follows : Any 

 manufacturer desiring to have his hose placed upon the approved 

 list, had only to make known his desire and send in samples 

 of commercial hose for test. If the samples were found to 

 conform with the specifications, his name was placed upon the 

 approved list without charge for the tests. 



In these early days, the words "Factory Inspection" were not 

 used, but it was understood that representatives of the Mutual 

 Companies would be welcome to visit the factories of the hose 

 manufacturers at all times. Although no systematic plan of in- 

 spection was carried out, many such visits were made to the 

 factories, and without objection on the part of the manufacturers. 



From the time the first specifications were published in 1896. 

 no change was made until 1900, and at that time the changes 

 were of no g'reat importance. In the meantime, the National 

 Fire Protection Association had been formed and the Under- 

 writers' Laboratories established. At this point it may be stated 

 that although the National Fire Protection .Association is a 

 national association of those interested in the prevention of fire, 

 in reality, through a large preponderance of members affiliated 

 with stock insurance companies, it is controlled largely by the 

 stock companies. 



In 1889 the National Fire Protection Association adopted a 

 set of specifications for hose which were very similar to the 

 Factory Mutual Specifications of 1896. but enough different to 

 cause some confusion among the manufacturers. It became 

 evident at once that where these two organizations covered the 



THIS paper is not presented as a brief in defence of the 

 present Underwriter Hose Specifications, but is intended 

 to relate the more important events which have led to 

 their development. 



The statement, still occasionally heard, that fire hose is in- 

 stalled principally for fire insurance inspectors to look at, was 

 evidently the standard used by a large number of manufacturers 

 previous to 1890. The quality of hose, especially that for pri- 

 vate equipments in those days viras truly remarkable. It was 

 a matter of common occurrence for length after length to burst 

 at pressures well under 100 pounds and if the rubber lining 

 stayed soft and pliable for two years, the purchaser could con- 

 sider himself lucky. Frequently the backing would fail, allow- 

 ing the lining to separate from the fabric and occasionally the 

 lining would be ripped out by the water and be washed along 

 with the stream, plugging the nozzle. It is true that in many 

 cases the price of the hose was so low that a good grade could 

 not have been expected, but this does not alter the fact that 

 the situation was a serious one and badly in need of 

 improvement. 



Steps in this direction were first undertaken by Mr. John R. 

 Freeman, then connected with the Inspection Department of the 

 Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies, and now one of the 

 foremost hydraulic engineers in the country, although still con- 

 nected with the Mutual Companies in the capacity of president 

 of several of the individual companies. Mr. Freeman had pre- 

 viously, in 1888, conducted a series of experiments on the hy- 

 draulics of fire streams, in which he found that the character of 

 the waterway in the hose had a marked effect upon the friction 

 loss or drop in pressure. Thus, with a badly corrugated mill 

 hose, the drop in pressure per 100 feet with 240 gallons flowing 

 per minute in 254-inch hose, was found to be 25^ pounds, while 

 with the smooth hose, the drop in pressure was only 14 pounds. 

 In other words, if 200 feet of hose were being used in a line, 

 it would require a pressure of about 73 pounds at the hydrant 

 to give a good fire stream with good hose, while with poor hose 

 it would require a pressure of 95 pounds. 



In view of the importance of this matter, the question was 

 taken up with a number of the largest hose manufacturers. In 

 the numerous conferences which followed, the discussion spread 

 from friction loss to include cotton fabric, rubber lining, burst- 

 ing strength, elongation, etc. Practically all agreed that the fire 

 hose situation, especially with respect to private equipment hose, 

 needed improvement, and most of the manufacturers were in 

 favor of specifications. Finally, after a large number of tests 

 had been made and many lots of hose examined in the field. 

 the first set of Underwriter Hose Specifications were agreed 

 apon and published in July. 1896. 



