ASSOCIATIONS OF EMPLOYERS 31 



The measures 1 aken for resistance may be thus divided : 



ist., those f r prevention, so as to eliminate or reduce the causes 

 of economic conflicts ; 



2nd., those f r defence, to be prepared at the moment of conflict. 



In the work of prevention, which is extensive and various, may be 

 mentioned first of all the work of some agricultural societies which seek 

 to prevent aggravation of taxation on landed property. 



More powerful, as a means of prevention, is the action of special banks 

 promoted by the employers' associations themselves, of which we shall 

 speak later, as they co-operate by means of credit in extending the number 

 of small holdings and certain forms of agricultural contracts, for instance, 

 of small leases and metairies and thus tend to diminish economic conflicts. 



Collective labour contracts, especially for long periods, also assist pre- 

 vention, and proprietors have repeatedly requested for these a guarantee 

 fixed by law and binding the contracting parties. In order the more 

 effectually to compel workmen to observe the contracts, some societies 

 have had recourse to the formation of special guarantee funds, by means 

 of stoppages from wages. Certain associations, especially those of the 

 rice cultivators of Pola, Piacenza and Apulia, have increased the use of 

 machinery. Though conflicts cannot by this means be either prevented 

 or terminated, yet the need of labourers wiU be diminished, the losses 

 caused by strikes will be limited and machinery may be substituted for 

 the strikers. 



The more strictly defensive action is based on solidarity amongst 

 land-owners, expressed in the words in the regulations " one for all and all 

 for one " and in the principle of considering an offence " committed against 

 one as committed against all. " 



A ver}' potent method of maintaining solidarity among employers' as- 

 sociations is that of requiring blank cheques from their members and the 

 payment of fines for breaches of the rules or for acting in opposition to 

 the decisions of the meetings or of the authorities of the society. The 

 penalty must be fixed in proportion to the consequences of the breach of 

 rule or to the number of hectares possessed by the offender. 



The special contributions, to which reference has already been made, 

 also serve to maintain solidarity. These are used for compensation for 

 losses in times of contest or to defray the cost of defence. Such contributions 

 are imposed by the associations of rice cultivators ; that of Novara fixes the 

 maximum at 15 francs per hectare for proprietors, and 3 francs for tenant 

 farmers. 



The rule that offences committed against one must be considered as 

 committed against all is enforced by the prohibition to employ workmen 

 who have been dismissed for breach of contract or who have refused to 

 work for others, as in cases of boycotting. 



Among the mo.st ordinary and direct means of defence in case of strikes 

 is that to which rice cultivators' associations repeatedly resort, viz, the 

 recruiting of free labourers, not yet numerous or important in Italy. In 

 November, 191 1, the Association of Novara resolved to form a considerable 



