LAND TENURE AND THE ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURE 6 5 



be made for preventing wrongs being done to them and for preserving 

 peace and friendship with them ". 



Originall}^ the relations of the Government with the Indians were 

 determined by treaties made with their tribal authorities. Although 

 the Government claimed complete sovereignty over the territory and 

 inhabitants within its limits, and while treaties, in the true legal sense of 

 the term, can only be entered into between independent sovereignties, 

 yet the colonies, and also the mother country, had treated with the In- 

 dians as " nations ", their chiefs, or " sachems ", often being designated 

 kings. This notion was retained by the founders of the Government 

 and thus became its established policy. 



The early treaties generally defined the boundary line between the 

 Indian country and that of the United States, which at first extended 

 from the lake on the north to Florida on the south. The United States 

 claimed no control over its citizens who ventured to pass this line. Gradually 

 trading and military posts were established and the land about them se- 

 cured from the Indians ; then roadways between these stations were ob- 

 tained ; until finallj' the Indians were living upon defined tracts. The 

 continued pressure of immigration and the consequent demand for land 

 resulted in the Indians exchanging their more eastern tracts for reserva- 

 tions, set apart for them by the Government in the western part of the 

 countr>^ The establishment of such reservations was the natural result 

 of the cession of their lands by the Indians to the United States, and was 

 necessary in order to provide them with homes and with land for culti- 

 vation ; to avoid disputes in regard to boundaries ; and to bring the In- 

 dians more easily under the control of the Government by confining them 

 within given areas. This policy involved a very important and radical 

 change in the customs and habits of the Indians and was the first step 

 by them toward agricultural pursuits as their principal means of livelihood, 

 the organization and development of which form the subject of the second 

 part of this article. 



The making of treaties with the Indians was terminated by the Act 

 of March 3, 1871, as follows : 



" Hereafter no Indian tribe within the territory- of the States shall 

 be accepted or recognized as an independent nation, tribe, or power, 

 with whom the United States may contract by treaty. " 



The effect of this Act was to bring under the immediate control of 

 Congress the relations of the Government with the Indians, and to reduce 

 to simple agreements, subject to ratification by Congress, what had pre- 

 viously been accomplished by formal and solemn treaties, as with a fo- 

 reign power. However, this procedure accomplishes practically the 

 same residts in a different manner more consonant with the real sover- 

 eignty of the United States and the progress of civilization. 



After the passage of this law, reservations were created either by 

 Act of Congress (generally in ratification of an agreement with the Indians) 

 or by Executive Order of the President of the United States, either with 

 or withoiTt the specific authority of Congress, such reservations being 



