CONDITIONS OF IJFE AND WORK AMONG THE FORESTS 85 



rural population regularly seek winter employment in the forests, the de- 

 partmental averages reflect to some extent the different composition of 

 the population in the several districts. 



If all the departments be considered together it is found that the land- 

 owning cultivators who take part in exploiting the forests together with their 

 families belong as to 69 per cent, to the local population while 31 per cent, 

 are strangers. The leaseholders and their sons are domiciled as to 

 67.9 per cent, on lands belonging to the owners of the wood, as to 32.1 

 per cent, on lands in other ownership. In the general group of 

 labourers three subdivisions can be distinguished: 41.4 per cent, who work- 

 ed in the forests all the j^ear round, 44.5 per cent, who in certain seasons 

 were employed on agriculture, and 14.1 per cent, who were employed on the 

 forest industrj' for periods of time (craftsmen etc) . 



If the proportion in which special occupations are peculiar to certain 

 social groups be examined, it is found that of the landowners and lease- 

 holders, respectively, 43.0 per cent, and 48.9 per cent were carters, 42.4 per 

 cent, and 36.9 per cent, woodcutters, while 14.6 per cent, and 14.2 per cent, 

 followed other special trades. In the group of labourers the corresponding 

 percentages were 12.8, 66.9 and 20.3. A carter, as has been said, is usually 

 responsible for the exploitation of a forest lot; and may therefore be assum- 

 ed to have a certain authority and economic independence ; very rare in 

 the class of simple labourers, and found rather among the landowners and 

 leaseholders, and especially among such of them as have reached a cer- 

 tain age and position. Generally the carters manage farms large enough 

 to support horses. They employ as woodcutters and for other labour their 

 own sons and their sons-in law and farm-servants iii the first place, then their 

 relatives, friends and neighbours. Usually they avoid engaging unknown 

 journeymen workmen, for these are considered to be untrustworthy and 

 likely to trouble the friendly and confidential relations between a carter 

 and his assistants which are an indispensable condition of good and profit- 

 able work. The amount of the revenue now derived from forestry in North 

 Sweden, in spite of the inadequate number of the supervisors, is largely due 

 to the fact that this industry is served by numerous bodies of workmen 

 among whom there is this good understanding between chiefs and subordi- 

 nates. 



The prevalent conditions have not failed to affect the labour contracts 

 customary on forest holdings. These are usualh^ in writing : they were 

 so in the case of 157 (90.8 per cent.) of the holdings covered by the enquiry 

 and 88.4 per cent, of all the workmen. In 1.7 per cent, of the places inves- 

 tigated contracts were made with outside employers, in 19.7 per cent, with 

 one or more carters commissoned by the others, in 68.2 per cent, with all 

 the carters, and in 1.2 per cent, with the carters and woodcutters together. 

 The report gives a detailed account of the terms of contracts, reproducing 

 a certain number of them as being typical. It treats of complaints made as 

 to some of their provisions, as for example those concerned with the system 

 of fines, the form of engaging woodcutters,tlie liability of carters for accidents 



