AND THE RECURRENCE OF WAR. 271 



of many fiefs, both small and large but speaking similar dialects or 

 patois, round one overlord, generally called a king, a new kind of 

 political organism. Based roughly upon a similarity of language 

 there began to grow up slowly at the expense of feudalism the 

 kingdoms of France, England, Spain, Sweden, Saxony, Branden- 

 burg, and various other political bodies which were the ancestors of 

 the modern European nations. In these newly forming political 

 organisms, the relation of the overlord to his vassals and their sub- 

 jects was not one that permitted an indirect allegiance of the sub- 

 jects of his vassals to the overlord as was the case in purely feudal 

 times. The Kings of France, of England,^ of Scotland, of Sweden, 

 of Denmark, the Electors of Saxony, of Bavaria, of Brandenburg, 

 the Grand Dukes of Nassau, of Baden, demanded and obtained more 

 and more a direct allegiance from all their subjects regardless of the 

 claims of the feudal nobility as middle men to interpose their claims 

 of sovereignty between their sovereign liege, the king, or elector, 

 or grand duke or as the case might be, and their own immediate 

 tenantry and personal men-at-arms. By degrees the political rela- 

 tions between all of the latter, whether men-at-arms or peasants, 

 and the king became as direct a personal relation as that between 

 the king and his immediate feudal vassals. Gradually the sovereign 

 entity of the feudal nobles disappeared and became merged in the 

 ever growing power of the king or overlord. In that way the 

 modern nations of Europe were slowly formed. 



G The feudal relation introduced in England by Duke William of Nor- 

 mandy marked an important step forward towards the development of the 

 nations as they exist to-day. For William the Conqueror required from all 

 feudal vassals of every degree in England an allegiance to himself as king. 

 The difference in feudalism as thus established in England from the feudalism 

 developed in France and elsewhere on the continent may best be shown by the 

 difiference in the French and the English feudal oaths which in substance were 

 as follows : 



The French Feudal Oath. 



On bended knee and with uncovered head I make myself thy man of life 

 and limb and earthly honour. 



The English Feudal Oath. 



On bended knee and with uncovered head I make myself thy man of life 

 and limb and earthly honour, saving my allegiance to my lord the King. 



