8 HARRY MILES JOHNSON 



of discrimination? If the reactions and inhibitions are no more 

 definite than this, inteipretation of results is extremely unsafe. 

 I have already referred to a day's record made by one of my 

 animals, showing an "accuracy" of 80%, whereas the animal 

 was not being affected by the stimulus. Dependable results 

 cannot be had from less than several fairly long and perfect 

 consecutive daily records, obtained under conditions of control. 

 A further question: Assuming that the "mental" condition 

 indicated by "scheinbar erschreckt" was legitimately ascribed 

 to the animals, to what may we best consider it due? Since 

 the experimenter was in the room, near the dogs, we are not 

 safe in saying that their "fright" was occasioned by association 

 of only the perceived tone with punishment. The work done 

 by Moll '"and later by Pfungst '' and Stumpf on the now 

 famous horse of Herr v. Osten, '' Der Huge Hans,'' showed that 

 in a situation of expectant interest it is almost impossible for 

 one to avoid making certain slight, often unconscious and in- 

 voluntary movements ; and it has been demonstrated that 

 animals, hypnotic subjects, gamblers, mediums, and even the 

 most honest laboratory subjects may react unconsciously to 

 such movements, thus accomplishing the deception of the ex- 

 perimenter and sometimes of themselves. It is not proof of 

 actual inhibition of such movements to say as did Shepherd '^ 

 that "care was taken to avoid them." The most important 

 point brought out in the investigation of Hans is that the move- 

 ments are made both unconsciously and involuntarily, and are 

 usually discovered indirectly. In Kalischer's work there is good 

 reason (especially in view of the remarkable results reported) 

 for suspecting the presence of such a factor. The experimenter 

 stood before the dog, being doubtless the center of the animal's 

 interest, ready to give food or to strike as soon as the dog sprang 

 up on to the chair. The punishment had to be administered 

 quickly to prevent the animal from obtaining the food. One 

 would expect that slight, nascent movements involved in giving 

 food or striking would inevitably be made. Besides these and 



1' Moll, A. Hypnotism (4th ed.) ; tr. by Arthur F. Hopkirk. New York, 

 Scribners, 1910. 



" Pfungst, Oskar. Clever Hans. Tr. by Carl L. Rahn. New York, Henry 

 Holt & Company, 1911. 



1* Shepherd, W. T. Discrimination of articulate sounds by cats. American 

 Journal of Pmjchology, 1912. 



