SECT. I] EMBRYOLOGY IN ANTIQUITY 51 



to. These investigators of nature who Hved in Greece from the eighth 

 century onwards are only known to us through the writings of 

 others, or in some cases in the form of fragments, for all their 

 complete books have perished. Diels' collection of the Fragmente der 

 Vorsokratiker is the most convenient source for what is left, but the 

 assembling of their opinions has not been left to modern times, for 

 a collection of them occurs in the writings of Plutarch of Chaeronea^ 

 (3rd century a.d.). It is necessary to make use of some caution 

 in describing their views, for Aristotle, as an instance, frequently 

 gives the most unfair versions of the views of his predecessors. The 

 account which follows is based upon Plutarch, in Philemon Holland's 

 translation, and Diels. Empedocles of Akragas, who lived about 

 444 B.C., believed that "the embryo derives its composition out of 

 vessels that are four in number, two veins and two arteries, through 

 which blood is brought to the embryo". He also held that the sinews 

 are formed from a mixture of equal parts of earth and air, that 

 the nails are water congealed, and that the bones are formed from 

 a mixture of equal parts of water and earth. Sweat and tears, on 

 the other hand, are made up of four parts of fire to one of water. 

 Empedocles also had opinions about the origin of monsters and twins, 

 and asserted that the influence of the maternal imagination upon the 

 embryo was great so that its formation could be guided and interfered 

 with. "Empedocles", says Plutarch, "saith that men begin to take 

 forme after the thirtie-first day and are finished and knit in their 

 parts within 50 dales wanting one. Asclepiades saith that the members 

 of males because they are more hot are joynted and receive shape in 

 the space of 26 dales, and many of them sooner, but are finished and 

 complet in all limbes within 50 dales but females require two moneths 

 ere they be fashioned, and fower before they come to their perfection, 

 for that they want naturall heat. As for the parts of unreasonable 

 creatures they come to their accomplishment sooner or later, ac- 

 cording to the temperature of their elements." Empedocles did not 

 consider that an embryo was fully alive. "Empedocles ", says Plutarch, 

 "denieth it to be a creature animall, howbeit that it hath life and 

 breath within the bellie, mary the first time that it hath respiration 

 is at the birth, namely, when the superfluous humiditie which is in 

 such unborne fruits is retired and gone, so that the aire from without 

 entreth into the void vessels lying open." 



^ It is now certain that this collection is not by Plutarch himself but by an earlier 

 compiler, Aetius (see Burnet). 



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