Middlemen in English Business 315 



as "Such as carry goods from market to market, or from house to 

 house, to sell."^ They bought their goods from wholesale tradesmen 

 of the cities or from the Manchester Men, and travelled on foot mth 

 packs on their shoulders, or mth horse and panniers, or with horse 

 and cart or wagon.- 



The character of the merchandise carried around by these chapmen 

 is illustrated by the report in 1696 of a robbery of one's wagon in 

 Bedfordshire. The things stolen included a truss of £165 of old 

 money, a piece of broad alamode, one of narrow alamode, two pieces 

 of black silk crape, one half pound of fine white thread, pieces of linen 

 cloth, a plain muslin head-dress, a striped muslin head-dress, six pairs 

 of roll stockings and eighteen pairs of short stockings.^ 



The petty chapmen had distinct advantages over the local or city 

 stores, and much complaint was laid against them as destructive 

 competitors.'' In the first place they were unrestrained b\' any 

 system of apprenticeship and could set up in business at will. They 

 escaped the pa\Tiient of taxes, rents and the duty of performing public 

 office. They lived in a lower social scale and on a lower standard of 

 living; consequently their clothing, houses, entertainments, etc., were 

 of less expense to them. And they wxre less responsible in a financial 

 way; allegations were profuse as to their dishonorable business prac- 

 tices.^ By the superlative language of the phiUppics against the 

 chapmen, one would surmise that the country shops and stores were 

 in a decadent and retrograde state, under the dire competition of 

 these chapmen; whereas it appears they were extending themselves 

 in number, size and importance throughout the period, especially in 

 the larger cities and towns. 



The stress and strain of the public finance under William Ill's reign 

 furthered the precipitation of these complaints into legislation adverse 

 to the chapmen. Out of consideration for the interest of the local 



1 Defoe, Com. Eng. Ti ., I, 1. 



2 In 1718 a critic asserted that "most of the Commodities . . . are now 

 job'd or hawk'd about the Country^, from Parish to Parish and from Door to Door, 

 by Vagabond and Itinerant Retailers, who carry their All in a Pair of Panniers, or 

 upon one or two Pack-Horses." "Essay against Forestallers," 21. In 1773 they 

 "convey waggon loads;" Moore, Consid. on Price, 76. 



3 V. C. H., Bed. II, 99. 



■* "Trade of Eng. revived," ca. 1685, 22, 36-40; "Essay against Forestallers," 

 1718, 21; Moore, Considerations, 1773, 76. 



* The term "hawking" has its derivation from the spying, thievish habits of the 

 bird and man. They also acquired a reputation for ruffianism and brigandage. 

 Smiles, Lives, I, 307; Mantoux, 97. 



