304 The Field Naturalist's Qttarterly Nov. 



what is commonly known as the " cushion shape." It is 

 simply a square block of wrought stone with the lower ends 

 rounded off. It occurs so frequently that almost any Nor- 

 man work will be sure to supply examples. Bear in mind 

 that the early form of the cushion capital is generally con- 

 vex — i.e., bulging outwards ; whereas the cushion capital in 

 later work, even though it be richly ornamented with mould- 

 ings, is usually concave or bell-shaped. The concave form 

 was produced in Transitional work by four leaves springing 

 from the annulet — i.e., the moulding surrounding the neck 

 of the shaft — with their points at the corners of the square 

 abacus. Sometimes the capital is carved with " volutes," 

 and in the later Norman period the capitals are scolloped ; 

 occasionally the head is very elaborately carved. 



Moreover, besides the external and internal indications 

 of Norman works, the plan and internal arrangement of 

 churches of this period are to be noticed. First, as to 

 the plan. The large Norman churches, such as cathedrals, 

 abbeys, &c., were as nearly as possible cruciform, but the 

 small parish churches were mostly oblong in shape, east 

 to west. During the early period of the style the eastern 

 limb of the cruciform church — the chancel, or rather the 

 sanctuary — was built quite short in length, with or without 

 a semicircular end.^ In the majority of cases the sanctuary 

 was lengthened, and wherever the semicircular end existed 

 it was either finished off into a rectangular apse or, as in 

 most cases, squared. Next, as to internal arrangement or 

 fittings of a church. The altar was always at the east end, 

 the font at the west end. Hence the necessity of some kind 

 of division. The Norman church-builder understood this 

 reason why, and strove to present the chancel arch in its 

 fulness of light and shade. 



One of the most striking objects of internal furniture" of a 

 church that has come down to us from Saxon and Norman 

 times is the font. In ancient times natural springs or foun- 



^ The absis or apse came down from the Romans, whose courts of justice and 

 temples were so terminated. Of the latter, Hadrian's temple of Venus at Rome 

 is well known to archaeologists. 



^ Among the church furniture of Norman days we do not generally come across 

 pulpits, because preaching was done from the altar-steps, or sometimes from the 

 rood gallery. 



