independently more than once as a symbiotic phenome- 
non; not only independently with regard to the phylo- 
genetic position of the genera affected, but with regard 
to the geographical distribution of those genera. The as- 
sumption that pseudocopulation has had an independent 
origin phylogenetically and geographically, arouses the 
thought that there is perhaps some prevalent attribute of 
the Orchidaceae, aside from any morphological character, 
that permeates the species and underlies orchid-insect 
symbiosis. 
It is illuminating to examine the evolutionary signi- 
ficance of pseudocopulation in the light of taxonomic 
evidence because, of the forty-five genera constituting 
the Basitonae or Ophrydean orchids, Ophrys is regarded 
as being the most primitive genus, while, of the three 
hundred and sixty or more genera constituting the Acro- 
tonae, Cryptostylis is ranked as being the thirtieth genus. 
Allowing for differences of opinion, and in this case they 
are delightfully negligible, the positions assigned to Oph- 
rys and Cryptostylis indicate that pseudocopulation, no 
matter what future studies and discoveries may reveal 
with regard to its occurrence, is a peculiarity of the low- 
est groups of the orchid family and therefore may be con- 
sidered an ancient and long established association. For 
this supposition one might expect to find helpful evidence 
in the paleobotanical record, but there are not any fossil 
orchids, notwithstanding Massalongo’s Protorchis and 
Palaeorchis from the Eocene of Monte Bolea. Although 
these may be regarded as being Monocotyledons, they 
are wholly doubtful orchid concepts. The orchids, prob- 
ably as a result of sparse distribution, appear either to 
have eluded the processes of fossilization or to have es- 
‘aped detection. As for the insects known to be associ- 
ated with pseudocopulation, none of the species has been 
recorded in the fossil state although the genus Andrena 
[15] 
