330 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1921. 



for the first time in a scientific or at least partly scientific manner 

 the doctrine of the evolution of the stellar system and, before 

 Laplace, that also of the solar system. Then he went on to discuss 

 the doctrine of organic evolution; but, not being able to overcome 

 the difficulty of explaining this evolution through mechanical causes, 

 he declared himself against it. He admitted, nevertheless, and de- 

 fended the social and intellectual evolution of humanity. 



Herder, a contemporary of Kant, is an even stronger supporter 

 of the idea of evolution, although he recognizes the possibility of 

 the intellectual and social evolution only. But even before Herder 

 the idea of evolution and of progress had been introduced into 

 history by the Italian, Vico, in his famous work, " Principii di 

 Sciencia Nuova," 1725. 



In contrast to the majority of German and English thinkers, we 

 find in France, in the eighteenth century, many philosophers and 

 scientists who are more or less devoted to the idea of organic evo- 

 lution. The celebrated astronomer and mathematician, P. L. M. de 

 Maupertuis, is the first among modern thinkers who, in his article, 

 " Systeme de la nature : Essai sur la formation des Corps Organises," 

 1751, came out as a definite supporter of the doctrine of transforma- 

 tion, while he at the same time set forth the hypothesis of organic 

 particles and of the spontaneous generation of organic life. D. 

 Diderot follows the doctrine of Maupertuis, but he links it with 

 the theory of organic germs and with Empedocles' teaching about 

 imperfect organisms. However ^ Diderot is of some interest on 

 account of his doctrine of social evolution. B. de Maillet teaches 

 the metamorphosis of aquatic animals into terrestrial ones; but 

 according to him aquatic animals come from indestructible germs. 

 He also speaks of the slow evolution of the earth's surface, and 

 because of this doctrine he is, like Hutton in England, a precursor 

 of Lyell. 



Ch. Bonnet is an antievolutionist. While admitting the principle 

 of continuity held by Leibnitz he deduces from it his famous " ladder 

 of beings." He teaches the eternality of organic germs which de- 

 velop into complete organisms ; each germ is merely the organism in 

 miniature which grows only as it develops itself. (This is the 

 theorj 7 of evolution held by Bonnet in contrast to the " theory of 

 epigenesis.") Bonnet, in opposition to de Maillet, is also a supporter 

 of the theory of cataclysms in the history of the earth. 



I. B. Eobinet admits, as Bonnet does, the Leibnitzian principle 

 of continuity and widens its scope by formulating a " ladder of 

 beings " which includes both inorganic and organic things. He also 

 teaches the eternality of organic germs, but he opposes the theory 

 of cataclysms. 



