662 ANNUAL EEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1912. 



Sweden (1906): 2 cities of more than 100,000, of which 1 only exceeds 250,000 

 (Stockholm), 333,000. 

 Norway (1900): 1 city of 228,000 (Christiania). All the others less than 100,000. 



In France, from 1846 to 1906, the population of the centers of more 

 than 2,000 inhabitants rose from 24.4 per cent to 42.1 per cent. In 

 England, according to J. James, in 1850 the rural balanced with the 

 city population;^ in 1901 the rural population represented only 23 

 per cent of the total. In the United States, according to the same 

 author, the population of cities of more than 8,000 inhabitants rose 

 from 3.35 per cent in 1790 to 29.20 per cent in 1890. From 1870 to 

 1895 the population of Europe had increased 20 per cent; that of 

 cities of more than 100,000 inhabitants 52 per cent. For each 1,000 

 inhabitants of our continent you can reckon 15 in the large cities in 

 1800, 34 in 1850, 63 in 1870, and 100 in 1895. In 1800 there was one 

 city of more than 100,000 inhabitants for each 450,000 square kilo- 

 meters, in 1870 one for 134,000, in 1895 one for 75,000 (P. Meuriot). 



Among the human factors of urbanism during the nineteenth 

 century must be noted first of all the decrease in the number of 

 wars, particularly since 1815; the abolition of serfdom which has 

 freed man from the land; the increasing multiplication of state 

 offices and of public functionaries, obligatory military service, and 

 parceling of the land. Intensive culture and employment of ma- 

 chines have contributed to rural exodus, encouraged in another way 

 by intense industrial development, made possible by the introduc- 

 tion of water power and the employment of steam. It is in England 

 and Germany, the two most industrial countries of Europe, that the 

 number and the population of urban communities have made the 

 most progress in the last quarter of a century. Nearly one-fourth 

 of the population of Germany lives in cities of more than 20,000 

 inhabitants. The Kingdom of Saxony and Rhenish Prussia are 

 great centers of growth and attraction for the Empire. Manufac- 

 tures concentrate the population, nevertheless the high cost of Uving 

 in cities, the ease and quickness of communications, and the recent 

 employment of water power commences to work to the contrary. 

 Trade, like manufactures, concentrates population; the market helps 

 to keep the workman in the city, and all commercial organizations 

 are established in great centers. You may say that these are 

 developed tlirough the requirements of trades. Besides, com- 

 mercial needs attract manufactures, and the latter often changes 

 with the port or simply with the market. It is for this reason that 

 ports become more and more industrial cities. 



It is chiefly through migrations that cities are developed. Accord- 

 ing to M. Levasseur, the attractive force of human groups is in gen- 



1 J. James. The growth of great cities in area and population. American Academy of Political and 

 Social Science, January, 1899. 



