THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. 415 



erosion atid of triiiisportatiou maybe .studied and compared; wliile, as 

 Prof. Lapwortli lias pointed out, the agencies wliicli rule in tlie pro- 

 cesses of ui)beaval and depression are still almost nntirely unknown to 

 us. The professor's address, delivered at Edinburgh last year, on the 

 crests and troughs which succeed each other on the earth's surface in 

 endless sequence, of every gradation of size, of ever^^ degree of com- 

 plex i I y, offers much nuitter for reflection to the student of geography. 

 The geological fold, as described in Prof. Lapworth's address, should 

 receive the attention of i)hysical geographers who can take advantage 

 of their great opportunities as explorers and as students, by investi- 

 g;iting\as well the simple fold, often under altered conditions caused 

 by erosion, as the tangential pressures and other indueuces that have 

 been at w^ork on it. Thus we should combine with geologists in work- 

 ing out nature's problems while we study the earth's i)ast history in 

 Older to understaud its present condition; for, although the limits 

 between the sciences of geography and geology have been clearly 

 detined, the diiference between our studies consists rather in our 

 methods and objects than in the materials on which we work. We 

 are therefore prepared to give a cordial welcome to Mr. Oldham's 

 promised paper on the present condition of the surface of British India, 

 as explained by its former geological history. 



If a competent acquaintance with geology is required for an accom- 

 l)lished geograpliical explorer, a knowledge of biology is equally desira- 

 ble. For instance, the study of the fauna of inland lakes and rivers 

 has been pointed out by Darwin and Peschel as important in connec- 

 tion with many problems in physical geogra[)hy. It is two thousand 

 years ago since Eratosthenes, who presided over geographical science 

 at Alexandria, drew scientittc conclusions from the fact that certain 

 shells were found near the oasis of Jui)iter Ainmon. It was by the 

 study of the fauna of large lakes in ISTorth America and in Asia that 

 their marine origin was established, while we deduce the former exist- 

 ence of lands now submerged from the comparison of fossil animals. 

 Plants have acted an equally important part, both in effecting the 

 condition of the earth's surface and in revealing to us its former his- 

 t<ny. 



I anticipate that such investigations w'ill occujty some of our present 

 and future students and explorers as they have occupied their prede- 

 cessors; but they Avill, I trust, always bear in mind that the basis of 

 all geographical work, if it is to be really valuable, is the fixing of 

 l)ositions astronomically. Accuracy and reliability can alone make 

 their work permanently useful. Much attention ought therefore to 

 be given to the handling and adjustment of instruments and to their 

 im])rovement.' Experience in the held often leads to suggestions which 

 bear fruit when thej^ are carefully thought out. Thus there have been 

 several forms of range-tinders invented in recent years which might be 

 used in making rough surveys. Both Sir George Airy and Mr. Merri- 



